Milani-Gramsci Comparative Reflective Article
VOICES FROM EXILE: Generative Resistance of Antonio Gramsci, Don Milani and Others in Intellectual Captivity
By Marco Tavanti, Elizabeth Wilp, and Julie Tavanti
First published on September 27, 2023—Anniversary of Don Milani’s “exile” to Barbiana when Don Lorenzo Milani was transferred to Barbiana on September 27, 1954, intended to be a sort of “exile” as an attempt by church authorities to silence and sideline him. Instead, it allowed him to develop his radical educational methods at the small school in Barbiana, significantly impacting the lives of many underprivileged children.
** Reflections inspired by the Centennial Celebrations of Don Milani (1923–2023)
DON MILANI AND THE “EXILE” IN BARBIANA
Don Lorenzo Milani, born in 1923 in Florence, was a transformative Italian priest and educator renowned for his innovative educational methods and deep commitment to social justice. Don Milani’s educational philosophy was revolutionary, fostering critical thinking and instilling a sense of social responsibility among his students.
Although not exiled or imprisoned in the conventional sense, Don Milani encountered significant resistance and restrictions due to his unorthodox views. His tenure was primarily in the modest village of Barbiana in Tuscany, where he was effectively “exiled” by church authorities because of his radical educational methods and vocal criticism of the social injustices that plagued the poor and working class.
In Barbiana, Don Milani established a school dedicated to empowering the underprivileged through education, using it as a lever for societal transformation. In 1967, along with his students, he co-authored “Lettera a una professoressa” (Letter to a Teacher). This seminal work critiques the traditional Italian educational system, arguing that it perpetuated class divisions and failed to provide equal opportunities for all. It served as a collaborative testament to Milani’s philosophy, aiming to amplify the voices of the marginalized and foster a critical consciousness among students.
While forged outside the walls of traditional confinement, Don Milani's legacy resonates with the spirit of intellectual and moral resistance characteristic of those who have endured literal exile or imprisonment. His impact continues to drive educational reform and social justice initiatives in Italy and internationally, demonstrating that significant societal contributions can emerge from conditions of imposed isolation.
BARBIANA: A SYMBOL OF ‘EXILE’ AND RESISTANCE
During Don Milani’s tenure, Barbiana, a secluded mountain village in Tuscany’s Mugello Region, epitomized both ‘exile’ and resilience. The village’s challenging geographical and economic conditions significantly affected its isolation. Its location in the mountains restricted access to broader markets and limited economic opportunities, confining the community primarily to subsistence farming. This terrain was unsuitable for extensive agriculture, thus curtailing potential income and development, perpetuating a cycle of poverty.
Barbiana’s remote nature also meant it lacked essential infrastructure, which hindered any potential integration with economically prosperous regions. The absence of adequate roads and limited educational and healthcare services further entrenched its isolation. Socially and economically marginalized by broader systemic structures that favored urban areas, Barbiana’s residents faced significant hardships.
The historical backdrop of WWII introduced additional layers of complexity. The Gothic Line, a major German defensive frontier during the war, ran close to Barbiana, making the region a focal point for conflict. The rugged Apennines Mountains provided a haven for partisan groups, who waged guerrilla warfare against the Fascist and Nazi forces. This period was marked by severe reprisals and massacres, with local communities bearing the brunt of these atrocities. These experiences imprinted a deep legacy of resistance within the community.
These circumstances profoundly influenced Don Milani’s decision to establish his educational project in such a setting. His revolutionary approach was about imparting academic knowledge and empowering the marginalized. He focused on cultivating critical thinking and social justice awareness among his students, enabling them to challenge the very conditions of their upbringing.
Barbiana’s story during this era is not just one of geographical isolation but of becoming a generative periphery where resistance and a form of survival were necessary. Under Don Milani’s guidance, this ‘exile’ became a beacon of educational innovation, drawing attention to the power of resilience and the impact of education in fostering societal change. This transformative experience highlights how profound social engagement can emerge even in the most isolated conditions, influencing broader societal movements and contributing to the fight against injustice.
GRAMSCI AND DON MILANI: PILLARS OF EDUCATION AND RESISTANCE
Antonio Gramsci and Don Milani are seminal figures in Italian history, renowned for their intellectual rigor and activism against authoritarian repression. Gramsci, a Marxist philosopher and co-founder of the Italian Communist Party, was imprisoned by Mussolini’s regime from 1926 to 1937. During his incarceration, he authored the influential Prison Notebooks, which presents a comprehensive analysis of Italian history, the role of intellectuals, and the concept of cultural hegemony. This theory explains how states and ruling classes use cultural institutions to maintain power, providing a profound critique of capitalist society. These notebooks have significantly influenced Marxist thought, especially in cultural and educational realms.
Gramsci famously stated,
“Culture is a privilege. Education is a privilege. And we do not want it to be so. All young people should be equal before culture.” (The Antonio Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings 1916–1935).
This statement reflects his advocacy for making education and culture accessible to everyone, irrespective of social or economic status. His theory of cultural hegemony proposes that ruling classes maintain control through economic and ideological means by shaping cultural and educational norms. By democratizing access to culture and education, Gramsci believed that the working class and other marginalized groups could challenge and potentially transform existing power structures, thereby fostering a more equitable and just world.
Similarly, Don Milani, working from the remote village of Barbiana, focused his educational efforts on empowering the marginalized. His seminal “Letter to a Teacher,” co-authored with his students, critiqued the systemic inequalities perpetuated by the traditional Italian educational system. In his earlier work, “L’obbedienza non è più una virtù” (Obedience is No Longer a Virtue) — published posthumously in 1970 — Don Milani critiqued authority. He underscored the duty of individuals to resist unjust laws and orders. He wrote:
“If you have the right to divide the world into Italians and foreigners, then I claim the right to divide the world into the dispossessed and oppressed on one side, and the privileged and oppressors on the other. The former are my homeland, the latter are my foreigners…” (Obedience is No Longer a Virtue)
Don Milani’s challenge to conventional nationalistic and elitist societal segregation suggests a redefinition of ‘community’ and ‘alienation’ based on social justice and human rights rather than mere nationality or legal status. He aligned himself with the oppressed and dispossessed, committing to an educational philosophy that supports the underprivileged against systemic injustices.
Gramsci and Don Milani exemplify how education can be a powerful tool for social change. Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony underscores the importance of an educational counter-hegemony that fosters critical thinking and class consciousness. Don Milani’s educational practices and writings actively challenged societal norms, advocating for a more equitable distribution of educational opportunities.
Despite facing significant adversity — Gramsci through harsh incarceration and Don Milani through a de facto exile to Barbiana — both remained steadfast in their commitments: Gramsci through his theoretical and political writings and Don Milani through his transformative educational practices. Their legacies, encapsulated in Prison Notebooks and “Letter to a Teacher,” continue to inspire discussions on cultural dynamics, educational reform, and social justice. Gramsci and Don Milani have profoundly shaped educational and cultural discourse through their theoretical insights and practical applications, advocating for a society that emphasizes equity and justice.
OTHER IMPRISONED AND EXILED LESSONS
Several other notable figures produced significant work while in exile or imprisonment. Here are a few examples, each reflecting ideals akin to those upheld by Don Milani, such as resistance, justice, and profound contemplation:
- Nelson Mandela — During his 27 years of imprisonment for his anti-apartheid activism, Mandela wrote much of his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom. His writings are a testament to his enduring commitment to reconciliation and equality, helping to reshape South Africa’s future.
- Dietrich Bonhoeffer — Dietrich Bonhoeffer — Arrested for his staunch opposition to the Nazi regime, this German Lutheran pastor and theologian wrote extensively while incarcerated. His works, compiled in Letters and Papers from Prison, delve into deep theological and ethical reflections, advocating for steadfast moral integrity. Before his imprisonment in the Flossenbürg concentration camp, where he was eventually executed, Bonhoeffer’s semi-monastic communal life and teaching at the underground Finkenwalde seminary, which was later shut down by the Gestapo, formed the basis of his influential books, The Cost of Discipleship and Life Together.
- Niccolò Machiavelli — Following his removal from political office and subsequent imprisonment on suspicion of conspiracy, Machiavelli wrote his seminal work, The Prince. Composed during his forced retreat from political life in 1513, the treatise offers acute insights into power dynamics and political strategy, profoundly influencing political thought.
- Dante Alighieri — Exiled from Florence due to his political involvements, Dante composed The Divine Comedy, an epic poem that journeys through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. This work reflects his profound sense of loss and desire for redemption, exploring themes of justice and the human condition.
- Miguel de Cervantes — While in debtor’s prison, Cervantes conceived Don Quixote, a novel that dramatically influenced literary culture and pioneered the genre of the modern novel. The narrative, rich with satire, critiques contemporary Spanish society and the human experience.
- Fyodor Dostoevsky — Originally condemned to death for his anti-authoritarian activities, Dostoevsky’s sentence was commuted to labor in a Siberian camp. His subsequent works, including Crime and Punishment and Notes from Underground, probe psychological and moral issues, often reflecting redemption and human frailty themes.
- Oscar Wilde — While incarcerated in Reading Gaol, Wilde wrote “De Profundis,” an introspective letter to his former lover, reflecting on his personal suffering, love, and spiritual awakening.
- Martin Luther King Jr. — Composed in the confines of Birmingham Jail, King’s Letter from Birmingham Jail is a seminal text in American civil rights literature. In it, he articulates the foundations of nonviolent protest and the moral imperative to confront injustice, inspiring ongoing movements for equity and justice.
- Maria Montessori—Exiled from Italy by Mussolini for her opposition to his fascist ideologies, Montessori continued to develop her educational theories abroad. She lived in Spain until the Spanish Civil War in 1936, when she moved to the Netherlands. During this period, she wrote Education and Peace, a book outlining her pedagogical methods for cultivating global citizens committed to peace and social justice. Her influential work emphasizes the transformative power of education in nurturing compassion and understanding across cultural divides.
The experiences of exile and imprisonment, as endured by the figures listed, highlight a profound paradox: periods of intense oppression and constraint can also serve as powerful catalysts for creativity and inspiration. Despite being physically confined and marginalized, these individuals found ways to assert their intellectual and moral presence. They extended their influence well beyond the limits of their cells or their countries' borders. Their writings and actions, forged in the crucibles of suffering and isolation, have enriched global culture and thought and provided blueprints for resistance, justice, and human dignity. Their legacies remind us that the human spirit remains unconquerable and that even in the darkest times, great ideas and movements often find their most potent expressions, inspiring others to continue making the world a fairer, more just place.
BARBIANA EXILE AS GENERATIVE PERIPHERY
Under Don Milani’s critical leadership, Barbiana transcended its status as an overlooked, forgotten, isolated mountain spot to become a seminal hub of educational innovation and social critique. In what was perceived as an exile, Milani and his students created a pedagogical approach emphasizing critical thinking and active societal engagement.
Pope Francis’s visit to Barbiana in 2017 further underscored the enduring relevance of Don Milani’s educational philosophy that emerged from his experience of generating new educational realities from Calenzano to Barbiana. During his visit, the Pope addressed the importance of education as a means of consciousness-raising, particularly for those in marginalized conditions. He emphasized the role of educators as essential nurturers of a free conscience, capable of confronting reality and contributing selflessly to the common good. His remarks resonate deeply with Don Milani’s ethos in Letter to a Teacher, where it is stated, “I learned that the problem of others is equal to mine. Finding a way out together is politics. Finding a way out alone is avarice.” This highlights education as a personal development tool and a communal bridge toward collective betterment and social equity.
Similarly, Gramsci’s perspectives on education and culture highlight the transformative potential of positioning oneself at the margins of society. Through their respective experiences of imprisonment and exile, Gramsci and Don Milani demonstrated how critical engagement from the periphery could challenge and reshape mainstream societal structures. Gramsci, from his jail cell, and Don Milani, from the isolation of Barbiana, propelled radical critiques that drew significant attention, both supportive and critical.
Journalists and authorities, drawn by the allure of revolutionary ideas emerging from these unlikely settings, converged on Barbiana. Their visits transcended mere observation, evolving into intense scrutiny that often questioned the unconventional methods and critiques emanating from this remote enclave. This interaction underscored how an isolated community, under Milani’s guidance, could catalyze national debates on education and social justice.
This transformative shift not only spotlighted the crucial role of education in societal change but also demonstrated how a critical consciousness, fostered in a marginal setting, could provocatively challenge and inspire broader societal reforms. The experience of Barbiana under Don Milani’s leadership reflected the generative resistance also evident in Gramsci’s writings from prison. Both figures showed that even the most marginalized spaces could become epicenters of profound social and ideological transformation.
This alignment of Don Milani’s and Gramsci’s experiences illustrates a broader theme: genuine innovation and change often originate from the edges of society, where the freedom to think differently and challenge norms exists away from the center’s coercive conformities. Their lives and works testify to the power of educational and cultural endeavors initiated from the periphery, emphasizing that true societal progress often begins where it is least expected.
Suggested Citation: Tavanti, Marco, Elizabeth Wilp, and Julie Tavanti. “Voices from Exile: Generative Resistance of Antonio Gramsci, Don Milani and Others in Intellectual Captivity.” Medium (EduVators). September 27, 2023. https://medium.com/p/4364e1c1f923/
Explore More: Bondi, Aldo. Dietrich Bonhoeffer e Antonio Gramsci: compagni di umanità. Italy: Edizioni Helicon, 2022. Gesualdi, Michele. Don Lorenzo Milani. L’esilio di Barbiana. Italy: San Paolo Edizioni, 2023.
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About the Authors: Marco Tavanti is an Italian-born American professor who deeply appreciates Don Lorenzo Milani’s teaching methods. He learned about these methods near the Barbiana school early in his career. Marco’s work brings these impactful ideas into today’s teaching practices worldwide. Elizabeth Wilp is a researcher contributing to inclusive education, especially in curricula and classrooms with students from different cultures and backgrounds. Her research and experience provide important insights into how schools can be more effective and welcoming for all students. Julie Tavanti is a Chinese-born American student passionate about developing new ways to teach students who learn differently and helping more women get into STEM fields. Her unique background and dedication to diverse education shape her views and efforts.
