Simplified Physics
The reality behind the maths of quantum mechanics

We have proposed in this work that the entire universe is composed of two fundamental particles (FP), namely the stings and singularities. In this chapter we will introduce the math associated with the intrinsic characteristics of these two fundamental particles responsible for many fundamental quantum aspects of physics.
The first of the two FP, the vibrating spring-like particle has intrinsic speed of light velocity with either left-hand or right-hand helicity. This means that each string has mass and velocity generating a momentum equal to msc, where ms is the mass of a string and c is its velocity which is behind the universe constant speed of light.
Therefore, each string intrinsic momentum is equal to msc (or ps). The key characteristics of the strings are behind the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles and the conservation of momentum.
The second FP is the spinning singularity at the speed of light. The singularities spin either clockwise (CW) or counter clockwise (CCW), which form the nuclei of the space and fermion particles. Singularities with CW spin interact with right-handed helicity strings as in the case of a positron, and CCW singularities interact with left-handed helicity strings as in the case of an electron. The singularities are found in groups of six or multiple thereof and form the nuclei of the space particles (assumed here to be the Higgs bosons in this work) and the fermion particles. One unit of elementary charge, e₀, is equal to a net spin of 6 singularities in the same direction. The strings orbiting fermion particles’ nuclei are of either left-handed or right-handed helicity only.
Bosons are composed of only packets of coupled strings and move in linear momentum. The subatomic particles’ wave-particle duality is derived from the strings’ wavy and velocity intrinsic characteristics.
Space Particles
1) Composition of Space Particles (SP)
A space particle nucleus is composed of 12 singularities, six of each spin’s direction, hence the zero charge. Their spins are responsible for creating the SP centripetal force, F₀, which is key to the working of the universe. The nuclei of the space particles (SP) are orbited by uncoupled strings of both helicities. The orbiting strings represent a space particle mass, m₀, with their intrinsic velocity, c, and a sub planck radius, r₀.The SP compose the fabric of space and responsible for its geometric flexibility.
2) Space-Time
We have also proposed in this work that the duality of space-time is the result of the accelerated strings in angular momentum, as they interact with the singularities, leading to the generation of the three spatial dimensions and the time dimension, since the intrinsic velocity of the string, is equal to distance divided by time. c= r₀/ t₀, where t₀ is a sub planck time required to complete a distance equal to a sub planck length r₀ at the speed of light.
3) Centripetal Force Of A Space Particle, F₀
From the above introduction, F₀ could be written in the following formulations:
F₀=m₀c.c/r₀, or F₀= p₀c/r₀, or F₀= p₀/t₀, or F₀=m₀c²/r₀, or F₀=E₀/ r₀, or F₀=m₀a₀, where a₀, acceleration, is equal to r₀/t₀². Just as the speed of light is constant, the centripetal force of a space particle is constant since it is powered by a fixed number of singularities.
So far we have introduced the sub planck units of measurements associated with a space particle (m₀, E₀, r₀, t₀).
The strings’ velocity c, the strings’ momentum p₀, the space particle centripetal force F₀ and its acceleration a₀, are derived variables which are key in formulating the maths associated with quantum mechanics.
4( Coupling and Decoupling of the Strings
Our proposed intrinsic wavey and spring-like characteristics of the strings plus their interactions with the singularities are behind the coupling and decoupling forces, which are behind the four forces of nature (strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravitational). They also account for the reported observations that particles are continuously popping in and out of existence in empty space. They also explains the spontaneous perturbation required for explaining other aspects of quantum mechanics.
In quantum mechanics, perturbation theory is a set of approximation schemes directly related to mathematical perturbation for describing a complicated quantum system in terms of a simpler one.
5) Centripetal Acceleration, a₀, and time dilation
The space and fermion particles’ strings orbit their respective nuclei which are composed of spinning singularities. They accelerate the orbiting strings.
The strings’ centripetal acceleration is: a₀= c²/ r₀ or a₀= r₀/ t₀².
This makes acceleration of a space particle strings in reverse ratio to its radius since their intrinsic speed is constant. The square speed of light is found in many of the laws of physics since c²= a₀r₀ (i.e. c²= a space particle strings’ acceleration for a sub planck distance, r₀). Any increase in a space particle acceleration must be due to its radius length contraction in line with general relativity.
As time is the fourth dimension of “spacetime” and since it is a byproduct of the strings velocity, and since t₀= r₀/c, we note that length contraction of the radii of space particles would also lead to time dilation, as the basic unit of time measurement, t₀, gets shorter. Therefore gravitational fields with higher density (acceleration) would lead to greater time dilation due to the greater radii lengths contraction.
6) Vacuum Spacetime and Sub Planck Measurements:
The nature and characteristics of the two fundamental particles are behind the fine tuned universe. They are responsible for the primary units of measurements, the dimensionless and dimensioned. physical constants, all the laws of proportionality and other laws of physics. The sources of all these measurements are the intrinsic constant strings’ momentum, their helicities, their coupling and decoupling as they interact with the singularities and the spins of the singularities which are the source of the negative and positive elementary electric charges, ±e.
Below are our tentative calculations of the sub planck measurements associated with a spacetime particle, using the Standard. International Units: Kilogram (Kg), Meter (m), Seconds (s) and Elementary Charge (e). Using these units, the strings of a vacuum space particle, m₀c, are measured in Kg.m.s-¹.
Since the centripetal force of a space particle, F₀, is equal to the planck centripetal force, Fp, as both are laws of proportionality, then F₀= Fp= E₀ / r₀ = 1.21027x 10⁴⁴ N. If we assume that a space particle mass, m₀ , is equal to the often reported mass of a Higgs boson, 125.09 GeV/c² and its energy is (2.00416 10-⁸ kg.m².s-²), then we find r₀ = 1.65596 x 10-⁵².
Based on these assumptions the sub planck measurements are shown below:
E₀= 2.00416 10-⁸ kg.m².s-²
m₀ = 2.22993 x10-²⁵ kg
r₀ = E₀/ F₀ = 1.65596 x 10-⁵²m
t₀= r₀ / c = 5.523688 x 10-⁶¹ s
e₀ = 1.025 10-¹⁷ e
F₀= c⁴/ G = 1.21027x 10⁴⁴ N
a₀=r₀/ t₀² = c²/r₀ = 5.4274 x 10⁶⁸. m.s-² (acceleration of the orbital momentum of the strings of a space particle).
These sub Planck measurements are smaller than the planck measurements by a factor of 10.25 x 10-¹⁶ based on a Higgs boson mass of 125.09 GeV/c².
If we use a Higgs boson mass of 135.72 GeV/c² then the primary planck measurements of (Ep, mp, tp, lp,e)/ c² = the sub planck measurements.
7) Einstein Law E =mc²
By examining the interactions between the singularities and the strings momentum, m₀c, we find that the role of the singularities is to accelerate the strings in orbital momentum turning them into mc².
The general equation regarding mass and energy, is the extended version of the above Einstein’s equation, called the relativistic energy — momentum relation:
Er= √(mc²+pc)² (where p is the momentum magnitude of a moving mass). If mass is at rest, then p=0 and E= mc².
8) Vacuum’s Constants
The SP centripetal force, F₀, pops up in the calculations of all the vacuum constants in physics. Most aspects of quantum mechanics which are associated with force fields can be explained in terms of the centripetal acceleration and centripetal force of the space particles which compose the relevant force fields. These laws govern the changes in the geometry of the fabric of space, including radii length contractions relevant to gravitational acceleration and time dilation.
Examples where the centripetal force is prominent:
G= a₀² r₀²/ F₀ or G= F₀ r₀²/ m₀². (Where G is the gravitational constant)
K₀= α(F₀. r₀²) /e₀² (where K₀ is the Coulomb constant, α is the fine structure constant and e₀ represents the interacting pairs of virtual electrons and positrons).
The planck constant is the quantum of electromagnetic action, which relates the energy carried by a photon to its frequency. A photon’s energy is equal to its frequency per second multiplied by the planck constant which is of fundamental importance in quantum mechanics. The planck constant, h, is empirically calculated. It is a quantum of action equal to a planck momentum for a distance equal a planck circumference:
Using our calculation of the sub planck measurements, the sub planck constant, h₀, is represented by a space particle strings, m₀c, completing a sub planck circumference of a space particle, 2πr₀.
This makes: h₀= (m₀c).(2πr₀). and h₀c =2F₀.πr²
It’s worth noting that in arriving at the planck constant, h, the strings assume their intrinsic linear momentum due to the absence of singularities. Only in case of mass the strings assume orbital momentum and get accelerated by the singularities. This is why photons’ energy has zero rest mass. The energy of a photon is equal to the multiple of the planck constant, h, time its frequency f per second. It is equal to a planck strings’ momentum, mpc, completing one planck circumference, 2πlp, times the photon frequency (which determines the number of packets of strings in a photon per second). E= h f = (mpc).(2πlp).f
9) Below is the calculated values of h₀ & ħ₀ plus h & ħ.
ħ₀=m₀c. r₀= 1.107 x 10-⁶⁸ Kg.m².s-¹(reduced sub planck constant).
h₀= 2πħ₀= 6.9583 x 10-⁶⁸ Kg.m².s-¹(sub planck constant).
ħ=mpc. lp= 1.055 x 10-³⁴ Kg.m².s-¹(reduced planck constant).
h= 2πħp= 6.626 x 10-³⁴ Kg.m².s-¹(planck constant).
h₀c = E₀.2πr₀= 2F₀.πr₀² (total centripetal force of a pair of virtual electron and positron time their contact surface area as they interact and reach the volume of a space particle).
ħ₀c= E₀r₀= F₀r₀²
This explains why h₀c is very prominent in arriving at the values of the gravitational and electromagnetic constants.
Summary:
We have postulated that the primary planck measurements (mp, tp, lp, e) are respectively equal to the proposed sub planck measurements times the square speed of light, c². This is due to the fact that the planck constant, h, was derived from the study of the properties of light waves. It also explains why the planck mass is unrealistically large and doesn’t exist in reality. The above four primary planck measurements were derived from empirical calculations of the planck constant, the speed of light, c, the gravitational constant,G, and the planck centripetal force, F. It is worth mentioning that c, G and F are all derived from the primary sub planck variables in accordance to their own laws of proportionality. On the other hand, acceleration is not a law of proportionality since it is equal to distance per second per second.
The 4 primary planck variables in physics, (mp, tp, lp, e)= (m₀, t₀, r₀, e₀)*c². From these 4 primary variables all other constants, values and laws of proportionality in physics are calculated. The laws of proportionality requires the number of primary variables forming the numerator of a function is equal to the number of primary variables forming the denominator.
10) The quantum operators of the planck constant.
h= h₀c⁴ =h₀GF₀ (where G is the gravitational constant). These mathematical relationships provide the basis for explaining the operators associated with electrodynamics processes responsible for the emission of the standard quantum electromagnetic radiation defined as a planck constant. The movement of charged particles would not only lead to the polarization of the singularities of the adjacent space particles but also to the synchronization of their spins.
It is proposed that a planck constant is emitted only when a quantum of action equal to Ep.2πtp is applied to move a charged particle. This leads to converting the kinetic energy used to added interacting sub planck momentum, (m₀c)².
Based on the above it is proposed that the quantum of action, h, is equal to an interacting pair of the added virtual electron and positron’s strings (m₀c)², completing one space particle circumference, 2πr₀, per sub planck time,t₀, for one gravitational constant, G. This explains why for the calculation of the primary planck measurements physicists had to rely on the centripetal force, the gravitational constant, the speed of light and the planck constant.
This is expressed as : h =(m₀c.)².2πr₀.t₀-¹.G =h₀c⁴
Simplifying the above equation and keeping in mind that m₀, r₀ and t₀ =mp/c², lp/c² and tp/c² respectively and G= c⁴/(m₀c.t₀-¹), we find h= 2πlp.mpc.
11) Key concepts/ laws in physics derived from the primary variables
11–1) Momentum
Represents mass times velocity. At the fundamental level it is a string’s mass times its intrinsic speed of light. It is a measure of the mass, velocity dulity.
The sub planck momentum associated with the strings of a space particle, P₀=m₀c. In standard units of measurements (using kilograms, kg, meters,m, and seconds, s), momentum is expressed in kg.m.s-¹.
11–2) Force
Represents the level of strings’ momentum per unit of time, using sub planck units F₀=p₀/t₀, or the accelerated strings by the singularities per unit of distance, m₀r₀/t₀² =m₀a₀.
This is a measure of the centripetal force associated with a space particle F₀ =m₀c²/r =E₀/r.
F=mc²/r is an example of first Newton’s law of motion.
F= ma is in effect Newton’s second law of motion.
As the strings have opposite helicities and the singularities have opposite spins then this is inline with Newton’s third law of motion which states that all forces in the universe occur in equal but oppositely directed pairs.
Using the standard units of measurements, force is expressed in kg.m.s-2.
11–3) Energy (Work)
Represents the work done by accelerated strings (force) for a unit of distance. Energy of a space particle, E₀=F₀r₀=m₀c².
Using the standard units of measurements it is expressed in kg.m².s-2.
11–4) power
Represents the accelerated strings (force) for one unit of distance per unit of time, i.e. work per unit of time. Measured in watts.
- Sub planck unit of power: W₀= F₀.2πr₀/t₀
- power=energy/ time. In standard units of measurements it is expressed in kg.m².s-³.
11–5) Gravitational Constant, G,
- It represents the potential changes in a space particle’s strings acceleration, a₀, along its effective surface, r₀², divided by its mass, m₀, as it interacts with fermion particles’ singularities in the process of creating a hadron confinement.
- G= a₀r₀²/m₀.
- This definition is in line with the equivalence principle which states that the effects of acceleration and gravity are indistinguishable.
- The centripetal force of two interacting adjacent space particles provides the basis for deriving the gravitational constant as shown below:
- F₀.F₀ =(m₀.c²)² /r₀². Simplifying this equation we get:
- F₀.r₀² = m₀²c⁴/ F₀. Since c⁴ =a₀²r₀² and a₀ =F₀/m₀, then
- F₀.r²/ m₀²= a₀²r₀²/ F₀ =a₀r₀²/m₀ =G (as per above definition).
G= F₀.r₀²/ m₀², or G= a₀.r₀² /m₀, or G=ħ₀c/ m₀²
Using the standard units of measurement, the gravitational constant is expressed in terms of m³kg-¹s-².
11–6) Gravitational Acceleration, g =G M/r²
- The accelerated momentum of the orbiting strings of the relevant SP (which compose the gravitational flux lines, which in turn compose the gravitational field) are responsible for the gravitational acceleration associated with a given mass. It is a vector force vertically oriented towards the centre of the mass.
- Earth acceleration at sea level (9.8 meter per second per second) =G* M (Earth Mass)/ r² (where r is the distance between sea level and the centre of Earth, i.e. its radius).
From the gravitational constant’s law, G= a₀.r₀² /m₀, we find: a₀= G m₀/r₀². This is in reality the law for calculating gravitational acceleration, g= GM/r² where g is the acceleration at a given distance from the centre of a mass, M is the mass and r is the distance from its centre.
The value of g is dependent upon location. In standard units of measurement the gravitational acceleration is expressed in terms of meters per second per second, m.s-².
11–7) Gravitational force
- Fg= mass* acceleration. It is the force between a smaller mass as it accelerates towards the centre of the bigger mass.
- Fg =gM = (GM₁/r²)M₂, where r is the distance between the centre of the two masses.
- This is similar to saying that the centripetal force of a space particle, F₀= the acceleration of its orbiting strings, a₀* the mass of its orbiting strings m₀.
11–8) Vacuum fine structure constant, α
The Vacuum fine structure constant is a measure of the resistance caused by space particles (which compose the vacuum) as they mediate between the interactions of charged particles (through the exchange of virtual photons) relative to the strong force generated in a hadron’s confinement, which represents the direct coupling and decoupling of fermion particles’ strings (the emissions and absorptions of the gluons). This is why this constant is dimensionless and equal to 1/137.
In electromagnetism two charged particles interact in vacuum mediated by electromagnetic flux lines (which are composed of converted space particles into virtual electrons and positrons). As this interaction is not direct between two charged particles but via electromagnetic flux lines, then the reduced strength of the electromagnetic force relative to that of the strong force. represents the vacuum fine structure constant.
Therefore as a general definition, the fine structure constant of any medium is the measure of the relative readiness of the medium to create a structure which would enables the coupling and decoupling of the strings between the quantum fields of two charged particles relative to direct interactions of two fermion particles in a hadron confinement.
Our explanation below, of the vacuum constants, refers to the vacuum quantum operators involved in creating them. Current literature provides the maths without explaining the reality behind them.
11–9) The Electric Constant- ε₀= e₀²/(2αF₀.πr₀²)
The electric constant is equal to an interaction between the singularities of a pair of virtual electron and positron,e₀², per the multiple of the total of their centripetal force reduced by the vacuum’s fine structure constant, 2αF₀ * the area of interaction between the two virtual particles, πr².
In other words, Permittivity of free space is the measure of the capacity of. vacuum space particles to polarize their singularities into pairs of interacting virtual electron and positron, leading to the creation of electric flux lines to mediate between charged particles.
The electric flux lines (composed of space particles turned into interacting virtual electrons and positrons) which provide the means for absorbing and emitting virtual photons acting as force carriers between two charged particles. The electric constant is a proportionality constant similar to the gravitational constant.
According to current literature, the Electric Constant (vacuum permittivity), ε₀= e2/ (2α.hc)
Vacuum Permittivity is defined as the capacity of the vacuum to permit electric field lines, (Where e is the elementary charge). ε0= 3.44864 x10²⁶ e2/ (N.m²).
11–10 Magnetic Constant- μ₀ =(2F₀.2πα)/(e₀/t₀)²
The magnetic (Permeability) constant is equal to the total centripetal force of an interacting pair of virtual electron and positron (2F₀) reduced by 2πα, per interaction of their singularities per sub planck time (e₀/t₀)². This is again a constant of proportionality.
The standard unit of measurement used is Newton per Ampere squared (N.Α-²).
μ₀ ≈ 1.2566370614…×10–6 N.A-²
In other words the permeability constant is a measure of the influence of the vacuum to turn a space particle into a micro magnet.
The synchronized spins of the singularities of the pairs of interacting virtual electrons and positrons represent the north and south poles of the magnetic fields.
The lower the value of a specific material fine structure constant (the equivalent of. “α” for that material) , the lower the ability of its atoms to turn into micromagnets.
In current literature, Magnetic Constant (vacuum permeability), μ₀= 2αh/ce2
It is a measure of the influence of the vacuum on the production of the magnetic flux lines from a moving electric charge. μ₀= 1/ (ε0c²).
In a general term permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself,
i.e. it is a measure of a material’s acceptance of magnetic flux lines.
11–11) The Coulomb (electrostatic or electric force) constant- Ke=αF₀r₀²/ e₀²
The Coulomb constant is equal to a space particle centripetal force across it effective area (r²) reduced by the vacuum’s fine structure constant, α (1/137), per interaction of the singularities’ of a pair of virtual electron and positron (e²).
In current Literature Ke =αħc/e².
It is a proportionality constant in electrodynamics equations. The value of this constant is dependent upon the medium that the charged objects are immersed in. In SI units, in the case of vacuum, it is equal to approximately 8.99×10⁹ N·m²·C-², (where C is the Coulomb units).
The Coulomb constant is the constant of proportionality in Coulomb’s law.
11–12) Vacuum Impedance Constant — Z₀= (α.2.2πE₀/t₀)/ (e₀/t₀)². Z₀= (α.2F₀2πr₀/t₀)/ (e₀/t₀)².
The vacuum impedance constant is equal to the total centripetal force of a pair of interacting virtual electron and positron completing one sub planck circumference per one unit of sub planck time reduced by the vacuum fine structure constant (α=1/137), divided by the interaction of the singularities of the two virtual particles per sub planck time (e₀/t₀)².
In current literature, Z₀ = 2αh/e2
Vacuum Impedance Constant (Impedance of Free Space) is a measure of the opposition to the flow of an alternating current in free space. It relates to the magnitude of the electric field strength to the magnitude of the magnetic fields for electromagnetic radiation traveling through free space. It is equal to the vacuum permeability time the vacuum speed of light.
The vacuum impedance constant is measured in Joules and Ampere, J.t-¹.Α-²
The electromagnetic vacuum constants are created by similar operators, hence they are related.
Z₀= μ₀c=1/ε₀c= √μ₀/ε₀.
11–13) Electromagnetic (Coulomb) Force, F = K₀ q1 q2 / r²
The strength of the electric field is determined by the number of the charged particles involved in polarizing the singularities of the interacting SP, changing their geometry and converting them to pairs of virtual electrons and positrons with their specific orientations, hence composing the electric flux lines’ surface areas.
The attraction and repulsion forces are reduced by the total square surfaces of the SP composing the electric flux lines between two charged particles subject to the Coulomb’s constant.
Coulomb’s law or Coulomb’s inverse-square law, quantifies Coulomb’s force, or electrostatic force. It is the amount of force with which electrically charged particles either repel, or attract each other. In its scalar form, the law is:
F= K₀ q1 q2 /r² (where q1 and q2 are the signed magnitudes of the two charges, and r is the distance between them).
The force of the interaction between the charges is attractive if the charges have opposite signs (i.e., F is negative) and repulsive if like-signed (i.e., F is positive).
Keeping in mind our formulation of K₀= α(F₀.r₀²/e₀²), then the Coulomb law can be written as:
F= [α(F₀.r₀²/e₀²)] x [q1 q2/r² ].
From this formulation we note that the result of. the Coulomb force “F”, would be measured in Newton only, as the unit of measuring the charges of q1 & q2 gets cancelled with e₀² of the Coulomb constant element, and the unit of measuring the square distance in meters gets cancelled with the unit used in measuring r₀² , leaving only the unit used in measuring F₀, which is in newton.
11–14) Magnetic Force, F= μ.q₁₁.q₁₂/ (4π r²)
The strength of a magnetic field depends on the number of charged particles involved in creating the electric field plus the level of kinetic energy used to move it. The greater the net charged particles creating the electric field, and the greater the applied kinetic force moving it, the greater the number of SP converted into micromagnet with the resulting emissions and absorptions of virtual photons acting as force carriers of the electromagnetic field.
Therefore the attraction and repulsion force between two magnetized objects are determined by the aggregate surface areas of the SP composing the electric and magnetic flux lines. Their surface areas act as the source of the force carriers (the virtual photons). The rate of their emission and absorption is determined by the velocity of the orbital momentum of the strings of the virtual electrons and positions which compose the magnetic flux lines. The magnetic flux lines move vertically around the electric flux lines.
Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:
F= μ.q₁₁.q₁₂/ (4π r²), where F is the Magnetic force (measured in SI unit: newton), q₁₁ and q₁₂ are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere-meter), μ is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: newton per ampere squared) and r is the separating distance (SI unit: meter).
Since μ₀=(2F₀.2πα)/(e₀/t₀)² then the magnetic force will be measured in newton unit only.
12 Quantum Mechanics of Space Particles Supports General Relativity
- General relativity provides a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of matter.
- Since, according to our postulations, the whole universe is made of two fundamental particles, which are the strings with their continuous intrinsic velocity, and the singularities which interact with and accelerate the strings, then their characteristics should provide explanation to the operators behind the theory of general relativity.
13) General relativity can be understood in terms of the two proposed fundamental particles (FP) as follows
1) Meaning of A Refernce Frame
A reference frame is usually consist of an observer, a coordinate system, and clocks assigning times at positions with respect to the coordinate system. It is a frame used for the observation and mathematical description of physical phenomena and the formulation of physical laws.
The fundamental characteristics of the proposed two FP are the same everywhere in the universe, therefore the fundamental laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames. An inertial frame of reference in classical physics and special relativity possesses the property that in this frame of reference a body with zero net force acting upon it does not accelerate; that is, such a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line.
This means that non inertial reference frame would be special. No “absolute rest” reference frame exists as the composing FP are in continuous motion due to their intrinsic spins and velocity of the strings. However, the speed of a reference frame would always be zero in that reference frame.
2. Constant Speed of Light
Since the true vacuum SP everywhere are composed of standardized combination and permutation of the two FP (i.e. similar fabric of space density), then the level of the photons vibrations passing through the vacuum. anywhere in the universe would. be the same, hence the constant vacuum speed of light in all inertial reference frames.
3. The universal law E=mc²
The strings with their intrinsic velocity are represented by the symbol “mc”. When these strings interact with singularities and their linear momentum changes to orbital momentum, they get accelerated at the rate c, hence they are defined as energy, mc² (i.e. mc*c). To visualize that, imagine a train is moving at a speed x, which is the speed at which our Earth spins around its axis. Then an external observer in another frame of reference should measure the train moving at x² speed.
Therefore the strings with their intrinsic momentum, mc, get accelerated by the singularities, converting them to localized cluster of potential energy. The mass of these strings (m) with their c² acceleration, when released (due to the annihilation of fermion particles and the gluons composing hadrons’ confinements) they produce photon energy per second equivalent to hf (or mpc.2πlp.f, where f is a photon frequency) plus neutrinos and antineutrinos to conserve the singularities.
4) Gravity
Gravity is the result of changes in the geometry of the fabric of space. Since the fabric of space is composed of SP and since the geometry of these particles is determined by the centripetal force law F₀=E₀/ r₀ (=m₀c.c/r₀) then the drop in the level of strings (m₀c) of the adjacent SP, in the process of lending part of their mass, leads to their radii’s length contractions, hence the change in the geometry of the fabric of space (which is composed of SP). This radii’s length contraction turn the SP into accelerating spinning balls of energy which form the gravitational flux lines acting as the force carrier which compose the gravitational field. Therefore the gravitational force is due to the vertically oriented gravitational flux lines (acting as moving chains toward the center of the mass). The role of the gravitons is to pass the strings from the adjacent SP to the formed mass. It is not the force carrier as in the case of the electromagnetic force and the strong force. This explains the weakness of the gravitational force relative to the other three forces in nature.
14) Reconciling the new thinking with current theories dealing with gravity.
1) Semiclassical gravity theory
The above explanation is based on the proposed FP and their intrinsic fundamental characteristics highlighted in this work. This approach supports some aspects of the semiclassical gravity theory, as it involves the presence of the gravitational flux lines with their vertical vector orientation toward the centre of the mass, in addition to the quantum mechanics roles of the gravitons.
2) Quantum Gravity
The proposed approach also describes the vacuum in line with many aspects of the loop quantum gravity theory. It links quantum mechanics and general relativity by showing how the gravitons’ quantum mechanics (the coupling and decoupling of the strings) lead to changes in the geometry of the fabric of space leading to the creation of the gravitational flux lines.
3) Gravity And Acceleration Equivlance
The above explanation shows the source of the gravitational acceleration which plays a key role in explaining that gravity is the result of spinning loop networks with increasing density and oriented orbital momentum of the space particles’ strings toward the centre of the mass. The proposed approach also explains the gravitational fields in terms of gravitational flux lines similar to Gauss’s law of gravity.
4) Gravity And String Theory
The Strings theory has been recognized in this work through the process of coupling and decoupling of the spring-like strings which leads to the emissions and absorptions of the gravitons. They are responsible for the redistribution of the strings and reshaping the geometry of the fabric of space, creating in the process the gravitational flux lines composed of the spinning loop networks (the radii length contracted SP).
G) Einstein Theory Of Gravity
This explanation is also in line with the “stress — energy tensor” which describes the energy-momentum tensor. It represents the source of the gravitational field in Einstein field equations of general relativity, just as mass density (strings borrowed by the relevant mass from the adjacent SP) is the source of gravitational fields in Newtonian gravity.
As the SP experience radii length contraction, the matrix of the space particles with distorted geometry compose the metric tensor referred to in Einstein equations. The cumulative deviation in curvature of the SP composing the gravitational flux lines in comparison with the standard vacuum SP (the vacuum at rest) represents Einstein’s way of measuring gravity.
In using our above explanation, we are in effect saying that the creation of mass triggers the changes in the geometry of the vacuum SP. Newton’s measurement of gravity is from the mass density side of the equation while general relativity measures gravity from the distortion in the geometry of the fabric of space side of the equation, caused by the length contractions of the SP.
Black hole’s maths
Since we have proposed that a black hole is composed of two interacting condensed balls composed of massive number of singularities with opposite spins, each attracting strings with the relevant helicity, then the same way we derived the gravitational constant from interacting two space particles, we can derive the gravitational force of a black hole. The event horizon is where photons lose their linear momentum and assume orbital momentum due to the distortion of the fabric of space surrounding the two spinning balls of energy. Beyond the event horizon, the distortion in the fabric of space is not extreme enough to convert photons linear momentum into completely orbital momentum, hence they take a curved path and ultimately may escape the black hole’s gravitational fabric of space distortion depending on their orientations. Some of the coupled strings of energy at the event horizon manage to escape as Hawking radiation.

