What does it means to be human ?
A journey into the essence of human nature
The definition of what constitutes the essence of human nature is a philosophical problem as old as civilization itself. In our era, this philosophical inquiry has become central for several reasons:
- the attention that philosophers of the 20th century have placed on language;
- the centrality of technology in contemporary civilization and in human life;
- the devastating impact that nihilism has had and continues to have on our contemporary civilization.
As we will see below, the different views on what constitutes the essence of man have ended up colliding, giving rise to opposing and often irreconcilable paradigms. Although it may not seem so at first glance, after careful reflection, one can understand that the definition of human nature is complex and elusive. So much so that many philosophers and thinkers have even come to deny the existence of a human nature.
The questions we ask ourselves in this reflection are the following:
What is the main characteristic that defines our species?
Is it perhaps our innate propensity for creating tools, a reflection of a rational and pragmatic ingenuity that makes us capable of mastering our environment?
Or does the core of our being reside in our linguistic abilities, a means through which we express the intangible: thoughts, emotions, and dreams?
Or is it our spiritual inclinations, our deep search for meaning and connection with something greater, that truly captures the essence of what it means to be human?
This analysis traverses varied lands of thought, where the pragmatic and the metaphysical intertwine.
It invites us to consider philosophers from all epochs. We are called to reflect on both ancient philosophers who laid the fundamental bricks of Western thought, as well as on the insights of modern thinkers. From the ancient Greek philosophers, who laid the foundations of Western thought, to modern intellectuals grappling with the implications of technology and globalization, this journey is rich in perspectives that are often very different from each other.
As we delve into this complex matrix of ideas, we discover that the question of human nature is more than an academic aspiration: it is a mirror that reflects our deepest struggles, our anxieties, and our ideals.
These questions confront us with fundamental questions about our identity, our purpose, and our place in the cosmos. By engaging in this search, we undertake a journey not only of intellectual discovery, but of self-discovery, seeking answers to a question as old as humanity itself: What defines us as human beings?
This article aims to be a brief guide that allows us to orient ourselves, attempting at least to define the problem of human nature and, at the same time, presuming to give a glimpse of an answer.
Man as a Creator of Tools
The conceptualization of human beings as creators of tools is deeply rooted in our philosophical heritage. Ancient thinkers, such as Anaxagoras, were among the first to link human ability to manipulate the environment with the ability to practically develop ideas formulated by the mind. This point of view argues that the use of tools is not only a physical activity, but above all a consequence of cognitive evolution, where the act of creating and using tools is intertwined with the development of mental faculties, a process that began with the first hominids.
This view, which places the manufacture of tools as a distinctive feature of humanity, has evolved over the centuries. The Industrial Revolution, between the 18th and 19th centuries, drastically changed the way thinkers saw the interaction between humanity and technology.
Benjamin Franklin, famous for his pragmatic approach to problem-solving, highlighted the importance of action and active engagement in the world. His pragmatist perspective emphasizes human creativity and skill, arguing that the ability to manufacture and use tools is fundamental to expressing the potential of human nature. The 19th century, characterized by increased industrialization and significant social changes, saw Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels propose a more articulated understanding of human nature in relation to tool creation.
Marx highlighted the crucial role of work and technology in understanding human history and social development. According to him, work and tools were not just means of production, but key elements in the formation of human society and consciousness. Engels further developed this concept, highlighting the role of human beings as “working animals” (or “animal laborans,” as later defined by Hannah Arendt) and creators of tools, a perspective that places technological value at the heart of human evolution and social organization.
The emphasis on human beings as “creators of tools” has set the stage for a type of social and philosophical thought that adopts a technocratic view of humanity and politics. Historically, the focus was on humanity’s ability to use tools to shape their environment. However, contemporary attention has shifted towards the figure of the scientific and technical expert, whose specific knowledge becomes crucial in the management and advancement of society.
In this new paradigm, the ability to produce and utilize tools transitions from a mere manifestation of human ingenuity to a fundamental pillar in the structuring of society and political governance. The scientific and technical expert, equipped with specialized knowledge and skills, emerges as a pivotal figure in determining the policies and decisions that influence society.
The 20th century, marked by rapid technological and scientific developments, offered fertile ground for this shift. Thinkers like Max Weber analyzed the role of experts in modern society, highlighting how the specialization and professionalization of knowledge have transformed power structures. Weber’s theory of rational bureaucracy underscores how technical efficiency and rational organization become the dominant criteria in political management.
Political philosophy has also evolved, with thinkers such as Jürgen Habermas examining the relationship between technical knowledge and political power. Habermas introduces the concept of “technoscience” as a system that vests authority and legitimacy in experts, thereby influencing political and social decisions.
The debate on technocracy centers on balancing the power of scientific and technical experts with democratic principles and public participation. The tension between expert governance and democratic engagement raises critical questions about the legitimacy and efficacy of technocratic power.
Moreover, the vast expansion of digital information and the advent of the Internet have further complicated this dynamic. The democratization of information access has broadened knowledge spreading, but also raised concerns about the accuracy and quality of available information, reaffirming the vital role of experts in mediating and interpreting this information.
A Brief History of Technocracy: The Influence of Scientific and Technical Experts in Political Management
Technocracy signifies a profound shift in political management and power dynamics, accentuating the role of scientific and technical experts in societal leadership. This notion has been explored and endorsed by various philosophers and thinkers throughout history, each adding unique perspectives to the technocratic vision.
The genesis and evolution of technocracy are deeply intertwined with the view of humans as tool creators. This perspective, linking human capability to manipulate the environment with the capacity to actualize ideas, laid the groundwork for a technocratic approach to politics and power.
In this framework, technocracy is portrayed as a model where leadership is vested in individuals (or groups) possessing specialized technical and scientific knowledge. This model is distinct from other political organizations by prioritizing technical and scientific competence in the decision-making process.
Francis Bacon: The Foundation of Technocratic Thought
Francis Bacon, a decisiv figure in developing the scientific method, established the basis for technocratic thought. He underscored the importance of knowledge, especially understanding nature, as a catalyst for social progress. In “The New Atlantis,” Bacon depicted a society where scientists provide insights and guidance to inform rulers’ decisions and policies.
This vision emphasized scientific knowledge’s power to transform society and shape politics.
Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte: Scientists and Engineers in Power
In the 19th century, thinkers like Henri de Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte advanced the technocratic perspective. They championed the supremacy of scientific knowledge over traditional religion and philosophy, proposing a society led by scientists and engineers. Their advocacy for rational and scientific thought as the foundation for effective governance and social progress laid the groundwork for positivism and reinforced the idea of the scientific expert’s central role in societal leadership.
The Technocratic Movement in the 20th Century
The early 20th century saw the emergence of a technocratic political movement, especially in the United States. Although it was short-lived and garnered limited mass support, this movement introduced “technocracy” into the political lexicon, advocating for governance by individuals selected for their technical competence and scientific knowledge, rather than political affiliations or traditional power hierarchies.
The Technocratic Doctrine in the Mid-20th Century
From the 1950s to the 1970s, technocratic ideas gained subtler forms of influence in the United States, Western Europe, and the USSR. This era reflected a growing belief that traditional political ideologies were becoming obsolete, necessitating a shift towards social and economic engineering to address contemporary challenges.
A growing preference for more scientific methods of managing state resources has become evident, moving away from ideologically driven policies. The emergence of multinational corporations in the so-called ‘information society’ of the 1980s further propelled this trend. Technocrats, with their expertise in managing complex systems, data, and information, were deemed better equipped to tackle the increasingly complex challenges of modern, interconnected, and globalized societies.
Technofeudalism
The advent of the Internet and artificial intelligence marks a further evolution of technocratic tendencies. With the digital revolution, data management and analysis have become central to contemporary political management. Emerging technologies like artificial intelligence offer new possibilities for automating and optimizing decision-making processes, thereby expanding the scope and influence of technocrats. Experts in fields such as data science, systems engineering, and computer science have emerged as crucial figures in national and international development strategies. This shift has altered societal perceptions and valuations of knowledge, emphasizing technical and analytical skills.
Economic wealth has increasingly concentrated in the hands of those who control digital infrastructure and possess technical expertise. Big tech giants have transformed into entities resembling “globalized states,” wielding immense power and commanding vast economic and financial resources.
The term Technofeudalism, coined by Yanis Varoufakis, critiques the growing concentration of power and wealth in the hands of a few large technology companies. These entities, likened to feudal lords for their near-absolute control over large swathes of the digital economy, represent a new form of technocratic power. Their influence spans the economy, politics, culture, and society at large. Varoufakis argues that the foundational elements of capitalism — profit and the market — are no longer paramount; traditional capital has become subordinate to a new class of feudal lords, the proprietors of “cloud capital” or Big Tech, who have privatized the internet and extended their control over our lives and the economic mechanisms of our society.
The Relevance and Limits of Technocratic Views
The relevance of technocratic thinking in contemporary discussions on politics and social organization persists, especially in an era where technology and information are central to all aspects of life. The appeal of technocracy — governance guided by those with specialized knowledge and technical skills — is attractive yet sometimes controversial.
Technocracy addresses the need for data-driven decisions but also prompts critical questions about democratic participation, citizen involvement in politics, and the balance between technical efficiency and ethical considerations.
However, this technocentric view of human nature has faced significant opposition and critique, particularly in the 20th century.
Philosophical discourse has adjusted, shifting focus from technology to a contemplation on language and viewing humans as “symbolic animals.”
This adjustment reflects the growing complexities and challenges posed by technological advances. Some philosophers and critics argue that an overemphasis on technological capability might overshadow other vital aspects of human nature, such as creativity, empathy, and ethical thinking and action.
In essence, skepticism toward a purely technocentric portrayal of human nature has been met with a renewed interest in the role of language. Language is seen as a more profound expression of human essence. This paradigm shift suggests that while tool creation has been a significant driver of human evolution, it is our capacity for communication and symbolic thought that truly defines us.
In conclusion, viewing humans as creators of tools underscores our ability to interact with and transform our environment through technology. However, this perspective also encourages reflection on the broader implications of our technological pursuits, questioning the balance between technological progress and the preservation of other essential human traits. It invites further exploration into the essence of humanity from diverse perspectives.
Language: The Symbolic and Political Dimension of Human Nature
Exploring human nature unveils a realm where language, symbolism, and politics converge. Contrasting with technological (and as we will explore, spiritual) viewpoints, this dimension offers insights into what it means to be human, highlighting the significance of language and symbol creation as foundational to our existence and collective identities. Language extends beyond mere communication to encompass the broader spectrum of human interaction, thought, and society.
The Central Role of Language and Symbolism
Philosophers like Lewis Mumford, Martin Heidegger, and Hannah Arendt have played crucial roles in underscoring the importance of language and symbolic thinking in comprehending human nature. Mumford, renowned for his analysis of technology’s impact on civilization, highlighted language’s unique capacity to shape human societies. Heidegger delved into the existential dimensions of language, viewing it as a medium through which humans disclose and interpret their existence in the world. Arendt, a political theorist, emphasized the significance of language and communication in the public sphere, especially in the context of political action and thought. This perspective regards language not merely as an instrument of expression but as an integral component of human essence and social interaction.
The creation of symbols, a concept closely intertwined with language, involves the generation of abstract representations that convey meaning and value across generations and even civilizations.
Through symbols, humans can surpass the immediate and tangible, facilitating the establishment of complex social structures, shared beliefs, and collective memory.
Language and Political Thought
The connection between language and political thought traces back to the early Greek philosophers.
Aristotle’s depiction of humans as “rational animals” accentuates the significance of reason and deliberative capacities, which are intrinsically linked to language. It is through language that thought is expressed, making deliberation and political discourse not just language functions but central to human society and politics. Aristotle’s concept of humans as “political” further underscores our innate tendency to form communities, driven by our capacities for reasoning and communication, which enable cooperation and collective living.
Aristotle’s core idea in political philosophy is that government exists for the sake of fostering eudaimonia, or ‘a good life,’ of its citizens, which involves cultivating virtue.
This interconnection of language with politics indicates that human nature is fundamentally grounded in our capacities for social interaction and communication. Language is pivotal in forming societies, governing, resolving conflicts, and can be utilized to persuade, manipulate, control, or liberate and realize potential.
Sophists and Human Nature: The Interaction of Language and Communication
The Sophists, preceding Aristotle, significantly influenced the understanding of human nature, particularly regarding language and communication. Figures like Protagoras and Gorgias shifted focus from universal principles to a more human-centric perspective, emphasizing the potency of language and rhetoric.
Protagoras: Relativism and Human Experience
Protagoras’s assertion that “Man is the measure of all things” reflects a relativistic approach to human nature, stressing the subjectivity of human experience. He posited that truth and knowledge are relative, hinging on individual perceptions and experiences, thereby elevating the importance of effective language use for persuasion in a reality devoid of absolute truths.
Gorgias: The Power of Rhetoric
Gorgias emphasized rhetoric’s influence on human nature, suggesting that persuasive language can alter perceptions and reality itself. His view extends beyond rhetoric as mere argumentation, recognizing it as a formidable force that can shape beliefs and emotions. This highlights the Sophists’ belief in language’s transformative power.
The Contribution of Sophists to Understanding Human Nature
The Sophists’ focus on language and communication represented a focal shift in exploring human nature.
They acknowledged the crucial role of linguistic abilities in shaping both individual and collective identities, highlighting the expansive impact of language on human interaction, thought, and societal structure.
Their insights into the power of rhetoric and the relative nature of truth and knowledge continue to resonate, offering profound implications for understanding human essence and the structure of society.
Their teachings emphasized the importance of mastering language for personal growth, social interaction, and engagement in political life.
The Sophist perspective on human nature was pragmatic, prioritizing the practical application of knowledge over theoretical speculation. They argued that an understanding and manipulation of language’s nuances were crucial for navigating the complexities of life and society.
In summary, the symbolic and political dimensions of language provide a nuanced and intricate view of human nature, extending beyond the perception of language merely as a tool for communication. It is presented as fundamental to our cognitive processes, social interactions, and political structures. Recognizing the role of language and symbolism in society deepens our comprehension of what it means to be human, enriching our self-understanding and underscoring the significance of language in shaping our shared destinies.
Spirituality: The Search for Meaning, Mind, Soul, and Moral Values
The exploration of human nature through spirituality has been a central theme in the works of many influential philosophers and theologians, offering insights into our existence beyond the physical realm.
Figures like Plato, Plotinus, Saint Augustine, René Descartes, and various Christian philosophers have significantly contributed to this field, each providing unique perspectives on the spiritual dimensions of human nature.
Plato: The World of Forms and the Immortal Soul
Plato, a pivotal figure in Western philosophy, introduced the concept of the Realm of Forms or Ideas, positing that the physical world is merely a shadow of a higher, truer reality composed of eternal and immutable Forms. He believed the human soul is inherently connected to this realm, possessing immortality and the ability to recall Forms through philosophical reasoning and contemplation. Plato viewed the spiritual quest for understanding these Forms as the essence of life and the purest expression of human nature.
Plotinus: The One and the Intellectual Principle
Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism, added a mystical dimension to Plato’s ideas, proposing a singular source of all reality called ‘The One.’ He suggested that The One transcends existence and thought, with human souls emanating from this source on a quest to reunite with it. This journey, involving introspection and intellectual refinement, aims to ascend beyond the material world to the Intellectual Principle and ultimately to The One, symbolizing the spiritual pursuit of ultimate truth and divine union.
Saint Augustine: Faith, Reason, and the Inner Self
Saint Augustine, a cornerstone of Christian theology, merged Platonic and Christian ideas, highlighting the role of faith in comprehending human nature. He argued that the quest for God is an internal journey that reveals God’s presence within the soul. Augustine believed that reason and faith are complementary, leading to a deeper understanding of the divine and human nature. His concept of the ‘inner self’ is crucial to his spiritual philosophy, where introspection facilitates a profound comprehension of God and the human condition.
René Descartes: Dualism and the Thinking Mind
René Descartes, considered the father of modern philosophy, introduced dualism, distinguishing the mind from the body. His declaration, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), asserts the primacy of the thinking mind in existence and human knowledge. Descartes regarded the mind as a non-material, spiritual entity separate from the physical body, establishing a foundation for viewing the mind as a domain for spiritual and intellectual endeavors independent of the material world.
Christian Philosophers and Theologians: The Soul and Its Moral Journey
Various Christian philosophers and theologians have explored the spiritual aspect of human nature, focusing on the soul’s moral journey toward God. This path involves developing virtues, adhering to moral laws, and dedicating life to ethical and spiritual growth and divine communion. The soul, in Christian philosophy, serves as the center for intellectual, contemplative, ethical, and spiritual development. Dante Alighieri’s “Divine Comedy” exemplifies this exploration, depicting the soul’s journey through its moral and spiritual phases.
Dante’s “Divine Comedy” stands as a monumental work that intricately weaves Christian theology with philosophical thought and poetic brilliance, guiding readers through an allegorical journey towards redemption, purification, and enlightenment. It serves not merely as a literary achievement but also as a profound commentary on human nature, delving into the conflicts between good and evil, the quest for redemption, the significance of moral justice, and the enduring search for truth and divine unity.
This epic transcends mere narrative to explore the spiritual dimensions of being, highlighting the role of the mind, soul, and the incessant quest for meaning, truth, and communion with the divine. It presents a compelling alternative to the technological and linguistic dimensions of human nature, offering deep intellectual, moral, and spiritual insights that enrich our understanding of what it means to be human.
Summarizing Perspectives: A Holistic View of Human Nature
A comprehensive understanding of human nature necessitates an integration of its diverse dimensions as discussed by philosophers and scholars throughout history.
This holistic approach encompasses technological, linguistic, and spiritual aspects, each contributing essential insights into the essence of humanity.
Marx and the Intersection of Political and Technological Aspects
Karl Marx highlighted the dual nature of technology as both an empowering force and a potential source of alienation, underscoring the complex interplay between human labor, technology, and societal structures. While Marx’s analysis primarily focuses on material and pragmatic elements, it tends to overlook the spiritual and existential dimensions that are equally vital to understanding human life.
Jürgen Habermas: A Bridge between Work, Communication, and Politics
Jürgen Habermas expanded on the concept of human beings as active workers and political agents, emphasizing the critical role of communication in public discourse and democratic societies. However, like Marx, Habermas’s focus is predominantly on the social and communicative aspects, with less attention paid to the spiritual or existential components of human nature.
The Necessity of Spirituality and Morality
The importance of spirituality and morality becomes apparent when acknowledging the limitations of perspectives that concentrate solely on the material, pragmatic, or intellectual facets of existence. A life devoid of spiritual depth and moral direction is at risk of becoming mechanical and devoid of meaning, potentially leading to nihilism and alienation. These reductive viewpoints fail to account for the intrinsic human desire for deeper meaning and the cultivation of values that transcend materialism.
Spirituality and morality are indispensable for a fulfilled life and the establishment of a balanced and ethical society. They provide a framework within which other dimensions of human experience gain depth and meaning.
Spirituality enriches our understanding of existence, value, justice, love, and truth, while morality guides our social, political, and personal interactions, underpinning ethical and responsible actions in society.
We can finally asset that spirituality is not merely a personal belief or religious practice but a fundamental aspect of understanding human nature. It offers a horizon of meaning where life’s deepest questions find expression and contemplation.
Similarly, morality extends beyond a set of ethical norms to embody a core element of human identity, shaping our actions and decisions within the broader societal context.
Integrating spirituality and morality into our understanding of human nature allows for a more comprehensive and authentic philosophy, enriching our perception of humanity’s essence and its multifaceted expressions.
This wide perspective reveals humans not merely as producers, workers, communicators, or political entities but as beings in a relentless pursuit of meaning, aspiring towards higher values and embarking on a personal and collective quest for a profound understanding and expression of their essence.
The Excessive Emphasis on Spirituality
On the other end of the spectrum, certain philosophical and theological viewpoints might overly prioritize the spiritual aspect of human nature. Philosophies like Platonism, along with some streams of Christian and Eastern mysticism, heavily focus on spiritual awakening and the quest for transcendent truths.
While these views significantly contribute to our comprehension of the introspective and metaphysical elements of human existence, they can sometimes overlook the critical role that technology and language play in the formation of human societies and the development of individual identities.
Towards a Holistic Understanding of Human Nature
A balanced approach to comprehending human nature acknowledges the interplay and significance of these three dimensions.
Humans are not only creators and users of tools, influenced by their material conditions, but also communicative beings, with social and political frameworks largely constructed upon language and discourse.
Additionally, the spiritual dimension, encompassing the quests for meaning, moral values, and transcendence, holds equal importance.
The Renaissance era, marked by a holistic embrace of knowledge and existence, offers an exemplary synthesis. Icons like Leonardo da Vinci demonstrated the integration of art (language and symbolism), science (technology and rationality), and profound spiritual inquiry. Nowadays, interdisciplinary domains such as cognitive science strive to bridge these aspects, investigating how language, technology, and spiritual experiences influence human mind and consciousness.
In conclusion, a true comprehension of human nature necessitates the weaving together of technological, linguistic, and spiritual threads.
Each dimension brings its unique insights, yet it is their collective interplay that furnishes a richer, more comprehensive understanding of what it means to be human.
Embracing this multifaceted approach allows us to recognize our capacities as toolmakers and laborers, our distinctiveness in language and communication, and our profound spiritual journey towards meanings that transcend the material and the visible.
By acknowledging the complex and rich nature of human existence, we gain a deeper appreciation of the essence of humanity.
Translated from italian article Qual è la vera essenza dell’essere umano?
with the help of ChatGPT — English & Italian Translator
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