Domestic Violence From a Feminist Perspective

In the United States today, domestic violence is a problem that remains unsolved, and is often ignored, which results in incredibly problematic consequences. Raising domestic violence awareness could help to reduce its continuing prevalence, as well as help to reduce the serious, negative consequences of its victims, its perpetrators, and even its bystanders. The numbers affected by domestic violence are overwhelming and the consequences are life-shattering. This topic clearly needs to be addressed, which is exactly what I plan to do here, with this paper. In doing so, I will first provide a definition of domestic violence with a focus on the state of Wisconsin, then I will explain further why it is a topic of interest, and lastly I will make a critical intervention on the topic by partaking in an analysis from a feminist perspective. All in all, I hope to make an effort to raise awareness of domestic violence.

Although domestic violence has been defined in a variety of different ways, and there is no “perfect definition,” I will focus on the definition that Wisconsin’s criminal law provides because I live in the state of Wisconsin. With that being said, according to Wisconsin’s criminal law, there is no actual crime that is defined as domestic violence; rather, offenders are charged with other crimes that are then modified to be said to be related to domestic violence. Some examples that are commonly associated with domestic violence are: homicide, battery, reckless injury, disorderly conduct, kidnapping, damage to property, and so on. In order to be seen as domestic violence, the abuse must be at least one of the following: intentional infliction of physical pain, physical injury, or illness; intentional impairment of physical condition; sexual assault; or any physical act that may cause the other person to fear forthcoming engagement in the conducts previously listed. Likewise, for the crime to be considered domestic, it must occur under one of the following circumstances: an adult person against his or her former or current spouse, an adult person against an adult with whom the person currently resides or formerly resided, or an adult person against an adult with whom the person has a child in common. (Stroshine, Class Lecture, 1/23, e). As I previously mentioned, this definition is not perfect; however, it makes the most sense for me to work with it in this paper.

Domestic violence is such an important topic of interest, not only for women, but also for all of society as a whole, for the following reasons. First, this topic needs to be addressed because of the fact that it is still incredibly prevalent in today’s world. For instance, despite decreasing in recent years, mostly due to the passage of the Violence against Women Act in 1994, domestic violence still affects far too many people. That is, one in three women will experience domestic violence during the course of their lives, and every nine seconds, a woman in the United States is beaten or assaulted by her intimate partner. If that is not reason enough to delve further into this issue, over 10 million men and women are victims of physical assault by their intimate partners each year in the United States. Even more alarming is the fact that every single day in the United States, three women and one man are killed by their intimate partners (Stroshine, Class Lecture, 1/25, c). Clearly, domestic violence impacts the lives of far too many people.

The second reason that I feel the need to address this topic is because of the extreme consequences and effects domestic violence can have on the victims. There are three main categories of effects that victims experience, which I will focus on here: mental health effects, physical health effects, and work problems. First, women who are victims of domestic violence are at an increased risk, in comparison to the general population of women, for certain mental health problems; these mental health problems consist of the following: substance use issues and disorders, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, sleep disorders, eating disorders, and suicide. Similarly, as victims of domestic violence, women also report a higher incidence of: diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, headaches, chronic pain, and difficulty sleeping. In addition to the previously listed physical health effects, a more general statement in regards to this topic is that women who have experienced domestic violence are more likely than women who have not experienced domestic violence to report their physical health as poor. Lastly, domestic violence also affects work productivity; that is, about half of women who are victims of domestic violence report losing their job. Furthermore, most violence that occurs within the workplace is actually related to domestic violence (Stroshine, Class Lecture, 2/6, d).

Although these three categories certainly are troubling, even more disturbing consequences of domestic violence include physical injury and death, as well as the effect that this type of violence can have on any children who are involved. These two categories are in fact worrisome for several reasons. Let us look at some more data. First, it is often reported that the leading cause of injury to women is domestic violence; likewise, about 37% of women who need medical treatment in emergency rooms report that their injuries came from an intimate partner. Similarly, about half of all murders of women in this country are committed by one’s intimate partner, and every year about 1,200 women and 350 men are killed by an intimate partner in the United States (Stroshine, Class Lecture, 2/6, d).

Furthermore, it is estimated that about 15.5 million children are exposed to domestic violence every year. These children can, and do, experience some of the effects that victims do: major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, chronic health problems, post-traumatic stress disorder, and sleep troubles, just to name a few. Likewise, research has found an Intergenerational Transmission of Violence that exists within domestic violence; that is, children who are exposed to violence are three-to-four times more likely to perpetrate domestic violence as adults in comparison to adult men who did not witness domestic violence in their childhood (Stroshine, Class Lecture, 2/8, a). The prevalence, as well as the consequences of domestic violence, both make it clear to me that something needs to be done in order to reduce, and ultimately eliminate, the domestic violence pervading this country to this day.

Even though the domestic violence data and the consequences do reveal that men can be victims, it is women who are overwhelmingly more often victims, and it is women who are typically more vulnerable to domestic violence than are men. Why is this the case? A feminist analysis wants to understand why women are much more vulnerable than men, as well as how gender norms influence the following: why women and men are differently vulnerable to domestic violence, and how their own gendered subjectivity might shape their experiences of this type of violence. In order to make sense of this, a feminist analysis would turn to the patriarchy for answers. That is, the patriarchy is the cause of the subordinate status that women are subjected to, which equates maleness with being powerful and femaleness with being powerless. In doing so, the subordinate status of women is then reinforced through domestic violence (Goodmark, 2012). In other words, feminist theory argues that the ways in which gender is constructed and the ways in which people are socialized to their gender-specific roles, within the patriarchy, are responsible for the power imbalances that exist within today’s society that influence intimate relationships; this is true because of the fact that masculinity is defined in violent terms while femininity is defined in much more passive terms (DeKeseredy & Schwartz, 2011). All of this suggests that a feminist approach to the domestic violence imbalance arises from the belief that our society dictates that men have the ability, and right, to control their intimate partners due to the gender inequality that results from the patriarchy.

With that being said, one might ask how, in fact, gender is constructed and socialized within the patriarchy. Well, Kate Millett offers an answer to this question. In doing so, Millett (1969) examines “the power-structured relationships” that allow for one group to have control over another on the basis of one’s sex (p. 37). That is to say, the relationship that men and women have with one another is one of dominance by males and subordination by females due to the fact that we live in a patriarchal society. Millett then goes on to say that this form of sexual politics (domination and subordination) gains consent from both men and women via socialization. In other words, men and women are socialized to form their personalities into what might be considered masculine for males and what might be considered feminine for females. For example, masculinity is defined as being intelligent and forceful; on the other hand, femininity is defined as being passive and docile. Then, societal roles are assigned on the basis of these gendered characteristics of personality; thus, women are given merely the same roles as animals — reproducing and serving domestically. Men, on the other hand, are then given everything else; therefore, men are seen as superior and women are seen as inferior under this patriarchal society. Taking note of all of this socialization that women undergo, it is easy to see how women come to be seen as rather weak and powerless under the patriarchy when compared to men, creating an imbalance in power.

Expanding on Millett’s explanations as to how gender is socialized within today’s society, Sandra Lee Bartky addresses this topic as well. In doing so, Bartky ultimately explains Beauvoir’s (1949) claim that “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman” through socialization rather than from biology (p. 35). This socialization is similar to that which Millett wrote about. In fact, Bartky argues that there are three disciplinary practices that are enforced on females so that they can become women in society; these three disciplinary practices are as follows. The first disciplinary practice produces a body that takes on a certain size and shape; in other words, the ideal feminine body is one that is dangerously thin. Furthermore, the second disciplinary practice is one that encourages certain bodily gestures and postures; both of which, are incredibly different for women than they are for men. For instance, women are restricted in their ability to move and take up space; on the other hand, men are socialized in a way that allows them to move freely and take up as much space as they desire. Likewise, women are expected to show deference towards any men in their lives — they must submit to and show respect for the men with whom they interact. Lastly, the third disciplinary practice that Bartky speaks of creates an ornamented surface out of one’s body. That is, women must ensure that their skin, hair, and makeup are all exactly perfect and in accordance with the standards that society sets; whereas, men are not held to these same standards (Bartky, 1989).

All of this is to say that both Bartky and Millett provide philosophical arguments and pieces of evidence that explain the feminist theory of domestic violence, which offers a gendered nature of violence in which women are vulnerable to becoming victims of violence and men are vulnerable to perpetrating it. That is, under the patriarchy, men and women are socialized into their respective roles of dominant and subordinate; in doing so, the patriarchal culture teaches men that they are able to exert control over women, while also encouraging them to act in whatever way they so please. Because of this, men become vulnerable to perpetrating domestic violence — when they learn that they are entitled to control, they will likely act on this, even if it means being violent. Furthermore, masculinity is defined in forceful, strong, and domineering terms, meaning that men are also vulnerable to perpetrating because it might prove somehow that they are, in fact, masculine men. On the other hand, the patriarchal culture socializes and teaches women that they are to be subordinate to men; that is to say, because they are taught to be weak, thin, and passive, they are vulnerable to being victims’ of the men’s violence. Women are never taught to be strong or fight back, but rather to defer to the men around them and restrict their movements; therefore, if men act in a way that is physically violent towards them, they may believe that it is natural for men to act that way. Likewise, they may even believe that they are fulfilling their roles as feminine women by accepting the violence that their intimate partners perpetrate against them. Under the patriarchy, men and women literally come to embody their genders, meaning that violence becomes inscribed on the bodies of men, while violation becomes inscribed on the bodies of women.

Opponents of this feminist approach to domestic violence argue that feminists’ intense focus on gender and the gender binary ignores the intersection of gender with other social identities, like the LGBTQ population, for example. Thus, essentially rendering these victims invisible. In fact, many believe that feminist theory teaches “that a normal relationship involves a cisgender man and a cisgender woman. [This is the] same with a ‘normal’ case of intimate partner violence” (Kray, 2015). Critics have a valid point in that, in a discussion of domestic violence, one cannot ignore the LGBTQ population; nevertheless, a feminist approach can still include this population. That is to say, some theorists argue that the same gender binary that applies to men and women, also applies to the LGBTQ population; therefore, LGBTQ persons are still vulnerable to gender under a feminist approach to domestic violence, just like straight and cis people are (Card, 1998; Hopkins, 1998).

As I mentioned in the beginning, raising awareness of domestic violence is of utmost importance due to the staggering numbers and devastating consequences that are seen with this type of violence — it impacts the lives of millions. While other theories exist about the causes of such violence, feminist theory argues that there is a gendered nature to this violence; of which, the patriarchy is the ultimate cause. All in all, much of the progress that has been made with domestic violence is due to the contributions of feminism; for instance, the feminist approach has now dedicated nearly four decades of attention to the problem; it has pushed for legal reforms like criminalization of offenders, victim safety, and offender accountability; and it has led to the creation of numerous services that are specifically for domestic violence (Stroshine, Class Lecture, 3/6, b). Even so, we need to continue to fight for more change so that domestic violence can ultimately be eliminated altogether. Until we get to that point, however, one of the best strategies that we can utilize right now is that of letting the survivor of domestic violence choose what type of help he or she wants; this is the best strategy in that every single survivor is different. Furthermore, everyone experiences domestic violence differently; therefore, until we eliminate it altogether, we need to provide survivors with a broad range of options so that they can feel empowered throughout their journeys towards recovery.

___________________________________________________________________

References:

Bartky, S. L. (1989). Foucault, femininity, and the modernization of patriarchal power. In L. Quinby & I. Diamond (Eds.), Feminism and Foucault: Paths of Resistance (pp. 25–45). New England: Northeastern University Press.

de Beauvoir, S. (1949). Introduction from The Second Sex. In A. A. Knoph (Ed.), The Second Sex (pp. 27–36). New York: Bantam Books.

Card, C. (1998). Radicalesbianfeminist theory. Hypatia, 13, 206–213.

DeKeseredy, W. S., & Schwartz, M. D. (2011). Theoretical and definitional issues in violence against women. In C. M. Renzetti (Ed.), Sourcebook on Violence against Women (pp. 3–21). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Goodmark, L. (2012). Defining the legal response. In L. Goodmark (Ed.), A troubled marriage: Domestic violence and the legal system (pp. 9–28). New York and London: New York University Press.

Hopkins, P. (1998). Gender treachery: Homophobia, masculinity, and threatened identities. In N. Zack, L. Shrage, and C. Sartwell (Eds.), Race, class, gender, and sexuality: The big questions (pp. 168–186). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Kray, K. (2015). ‘Don’t make us look bad’: The invisibility of LGBTQIA+ intimate partner violence. Retrieved from http://everydayfeminism.com/2015/02/invisibility-lgbtqia-intimate-partner-violence/

Millett, K. (1969). Theory of sexual politics. In, Sexual Politics (pp. 39–59). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Stroshine, M. (a.) Effects on Children [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: https://d2l.mu.edu/d2l/le/content/308948/viewContent/2014480/View

Stroshine, M. (b.) Intersectional Approach D2L [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: https://d2l.mu.edu/d2l/le/content/308948/viewContent/2014482/View

Stroshine, M. (c.) 1 Introduction D2L [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: https://d2l.mu.edu/d2l/le/content/308948/viewContent/2014474/View

Stroshine, M. (d.) 2 Introduction 2 D2L [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: https://d2l.mu.edu/d2l/le/content/308948/viewContent/2014479/View

Stroshine, M. (e.) The Milwaukee, WI response to domestic violence [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: https://d2l.mu.edu/d2l/le/content/308948/viewContent/2014491/View

[Untitled illustration about domestic violence and the brain] Retrieved March 28, 2017 from http://www.reachofclaycounty.org/domestic-violence

[Untitled illustration of how often a women is beaten] (2014). Retrieved March 28, 2017 from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/10/23/domestic-violence-statistics_n_5959776.html

[Untitled illustration of intergenerational transmission of violence] (2014). Retrieved March, 28, 2017 from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/10/23/domestic-violence-statistics_n_5959776.html