Religion, Myth, Symbolism and Ritual
Religion is a system of beliefs, including belief in the existence of at least one of the following: a human soul or spirit, a deity or higher being, or self after the death of one’s body. Myths are traditional stories accepted as history; served to explain the world view of a people. Rituals are ceremonies in which a god and goddess, or a concept of the sacred are honoured; a milestone is celebrated, or energy is focused towards a specific goal. Religion is widely practised through rituals which combine the ideas of mythology represented by symbols.
Rituals are inspired by stories of mythology passed down through generations to perpetuate the traditions of a religion and often enclose many ideas of symbolic meanings. Symbols are often based on specific episodes that are recounted in myths; signifying a specific certain worldview. During ancient times the complexity of human communication was made possible through the ability of humans to create and use symbols.
Symbolism for anthropology covers a vast area of human life, from the body to the significance of colours, through to worship of idols and religious symbols; their defining characteristic is that they stand for something other than their intrinsic property. For example, the colour red has become associated with danger in a number of societies. Conversely, it can also be seen as the colour of luck or marriage for Chinese and Indian cultures. For Catholics, the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ.
A religious ritual is a standardised, repetitive sequence of activities. It involves the manipulation of religious symbols such as prayers, offerings, and readings of sacred literature. Rituals usually hold traditions prescribed by a religion and may be performed at regular intervals, or on specific occasions, or at the discretion of individuals or communities.
Anthropologists have found rituals performed across the globe, in every conceivable culture. In its most basic elements ritual is one of many cultural universals, yet cross-cultural variation in form, content and social function is often great. For example, during the Hindu ritual of puja (daily worship) at the temple, a simple routine is repeated at the same time each night before the gods are put to sleep:
there was hymn singing, bells were rung, incense burnt and ritual music played…then sharing in the divine banquet-water and prasada (Allan p.195)
Mythology most often stems from religion. The renowned functional anthropologist Malinowski defines it as;
A codification of belief, which acted as a charter for ritual, justifying rites, ceremonies and social and amoral rules. (Hendry 2006 p.123)
Myths are religious narratives or stories that provide the religious basis for religious beliefs or practises. Some myths exist as written texts, whereas in non-literate societies they exist as oral narratives. These religious stories can be told in the form of art, music and dance. Anthropologists use the term to refer to sacred religious stories that are believed by the people who tell them to be true.
For many of us, religion is the most dominating force in our everyday lives. Without the explanation for the world around us we cannot find our own identity within it, therefore our life has no meaning without religion. There is no simple definition of religion as there are plenty of religions claiming that their religious activities involve no worship of spiritual beings. Ibid’s distinction gives us an accepted universal view of what religion is:
A propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to control and direct the course of nature and of human life. Thus defined, religion consists of two basic elements, a theoretical and a practical, namely a belief in powers higher than man and an attempt to propitiate or please them. (Hendry 2006 p.117)
Totemism is considered the first form of human religion by Durkheim. The totem was a sacred symbol, standing for the clan it represented and rites of worship, which stood for their own sense of belonging and unity. It is believed by Australian Aborigines known as the Arunta and also in North America. Totemism is frequently associated with shamanistic religions. The totem is usually an animal or another naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a group of related people such as a clan.
The roots of mythology that evolved from classical Hinduism came from the ancient Vedic religion. The characters, theology, philosophy and stories that make up ancient Vedic myths are ineradicably linked with Hindu beliefs.
It could be argued that the whole of the Bhagavad-Gita is based upon a mythological story known as the Mahabharat. The content of the Gita takes place on the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra war and takes the form of a dialogue between Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna. Krishna is the divine one and has descended earth in human form, in order to restore peace on Earth. The Gita is essentially a philosophical text for Hindus to follow and captures many mythological concepts:
Krishna recommends to Arjuna the practice of Yoga, so that he may be enabled to live his life with the necessary detachment from the world and its illusion of reality. However, salvation from the weary cycle of samsara is to be obtained through bhakti, through an intense personal devotion to the Bhagavat. The assurance is given in the following verses: “He who at the time of death, when released from the body, goes forth thinking on me, goes to my nature; of that, there is no doubt… They who have come to me, the great souled ones, go not to rebirth, the impermanent place of pain; they have gone to the highest state” (Pattison 1968 p.83).
To expand on the link between religion and symbolism in breadth, the representation of the swastika in various religions can provide insight. Many people would initially associate the swastika with Nazi Germany, unbeknown of its true origin.
The swastika is a religious symbol that is found in a great many religious systems. It is basically a pattern of lines set at right angles to one another and, as such, carries no inherent meaning. It occurs in many versions-clockwise and counterclockwise for example. The term is derived from the Sanskrit su (“good”) and avasti (“to exist”). (Stein 2008 p.59)
The swastika still continues today to be an extensively used sign in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. To Hindus, the swastika with the arms bent to the left is called the sathio or sauvastika, which symbolises night, magic, purity, and the destructive goddess Kali. In both Hinduism and Jainism, the swastika or sathio is used to mark the opening pages or their account books, thresholds, doors, and offerings.
The swastika was a symbol for the Aryan people, a name which, in Sanskrit means ‘noble’. The Aryans were a group of people who settled in Iran and Northern India. The Nazis regarded themselves as Aryans, claiming the accomplishments of these prehistoric conquerors. Thereby, the swastika represents purity. In Nazi Germany only the ‘blonde hair, blue eyes’ were considered the ‘pure race’ and in Hinduism, only the Aryans were seen as the pure race — a symbol created to distinguish themselves from the ‘less pure’ castes of Hindus. Under the British Empire, the British rulers exploited ths idea in order to ally British power with the Indian caste system. It was also widely believed that the Indian caste system had originated as a means to avoid racial mixing.The concept of racial purity was an ideology central to Nazism. In 1935, the black swastika on a white circle with a crimson background became the national symbol of Germany. The major difference between the Nazi swastika and the ancient symbol of many different cultures is that the Nazi swastika is at a slant, while the ancient swastika is rested flat.
The swastika is dominantly used during rituals by Hindus within the highest priest caste, the Brahmans. Its meaning holds great significance to people of this caste. It is not only a part of their religion but also what distinguishes them from the lower castes of Hindus, reinforcing their superiority within Hindu society. The symbol actually represents ideas about God, and that although there are many gods in Hinduism, they all, in fact, lead to Brahman. The strands of the symbol all lead to one central point, reinforcing this ideology. At wedding ceremonies and other rites of passage in which Brahmans participate, the swastika holds omnipotent importance. By all castes, it is used during Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights linked with Kali. The depiction of gods is symbolic within itself;
Kali symbolises transformation. The sword that she carries is used to cut away impediments to the realization of truth. She destroys ignorance and brings knowledge. Her garland consists of fifty severed heads to represent the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet. Thus the garland represents knowledge and wisdom. The severed hands are also symbolic of karma. The hands have been severed, showing that the binding effects of karma have been overcome. Kali blesses the devotee by cutting him or her free from the cycle of karma. (Stein 2008 p.213)
Hindu mythology is brimming with mythological stories of how gods and goddesses became reincarnated into many different manifestations of the three main supreme god heads: Brahman (creator), Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer).
The tale of the elephant God, Ganesh, is perhaps the most popular amongst Hindu worshippers and the Western world. Many different stories are relayed about the birth of Ganesh. The story passed down to me as a child is the one told in the video below.
During this period of waiting for the head, Parvati took on the form of Shakti (Shakti = strength) and various forms of Nuv Durga (nine forms of Parvati, e.g. Kali, etc). This symbolic form is still revered every year in the form of Navratri, the nine-night festival. Some female believers even have a visitation or are possessed by Durga. They dance around wildly with their hair and tongue out, imitating Kali, appearing to be in a state of trance. While in this form, others bow to her — believing the avatar of Durga is before them. Subsequently, the possessed worshipper holds power in society as her believers (Durgas) will go to her to solve their ailments.
As Ganesh was unjustly disfigured and Parvati was concerned about her son’s status, she asked for Ganesh to take priority — for his name to be evoked before all other gods. Ganesh was granted this extraordinary privilege and whenever a new endeavour is met, his name guarantees a trouble free way forward; as he guards the worshipper against any misfortune. From this myth, Ganesh (gana= guardian) becomes the god of protection and wisdom for all Hindus. Statues or images of him are often placed in Hindu households, facing the front door. In this way, all evil is believed to avert from entering the house and wisdom and guidance is invoked on all that enter before him. All religious Hindu ceremonies and rituals are begun by inviting the presence of Ganesh in order for the procedure to run smoothly.
All sacrifices and religious ceremonies, all serious compositions in writing, and all worldly affairs of importance are begun by pious Hindus with an invocation to Ganesh…Few books are begun without the words, ‘Salutation to Ganesh;’ and he is first invoked by Brahmans who conduct the trail by ordeal, or perform the ceremony of the home or sacrifice to fire. (Wilkins 2002 p.324)
Mythology is the backbone of Hindu religion. Its traditions and rituals hold immense symbolic meaning. From everyday worship to festivals in Hinduism, mythological stories provide Hindus with implication behind their faith in religion. Within the majority of religions, myths often stem from religion. Nevertheless, within Hinduism, I would state the opposite — the two go hand in hand.
Bibliography
Allan, John (unknown) A Lion Handbook: The World’s Religions. UK: Lion
Hendry, Joy (2006) Other People’s Worlds: New York: New York University Press
Joshi, Rama (1983) Daughters of Independence: Gender, Caste, and Class in India. London: Third World Books
Keesing, Roger M. (1998) Cultural Anthropology: A Contemporary Perspective, Third Edition. USA: Thomson Wadsworth
Pattison, Bruce (1968) Our World in Colour: Thoughts and Ideals. London: Grolier
Stein, Rebecca L. (2008) The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft, Second Edition. USA: Pearson
Wilkins W.J. (2002) Hindu Mythology, Second Edition. New Delhi: Rupa
