10 Most Influential Native American Doctors Throughout History

Published in

Heritage Digest

12 min readJul 27, 2024

The history of medicine is rich and varied, showcasing talents from all corners of the world. Among these, Native American doctors have made significant contributions, blending traditional healing practices with modern medicine. This article highlights the ten most influential Native American doctors throughout history, whose work has left an indelible mark on healthcare and medical science.

Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865–1915)
Charles Alexander Eastman (1858–1939)
Carlos Montezuma (1866–1923)
Carolyn Barcus (1939-present)
Connie Redbird Pinkerman-Uri (1928–2009)
Wa-o-wa-wa-na-onk (died 1871)
Lori Arviso Alvord (1958-present)
Annie Dodge Waukena (1910–1997)
Marigold Linton (1936-present)
Kathleen Annette (1955-present)

1. Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865–1915)

Susan La Flesche Picotte was born in June 1865 on the Omaha Reservation in Nebraska into a family deeply rooted in both Omaha and European traditions. Her father, Joseph La Flesche, was a principal leader of the Omaha tribe, while her mother, Mary Gale, was of mixed Omaha, Otoe, and Iowa heritage. Raised in a household that valued both cultures, Susan was educated in English and Omaha, preparing her for a future that bridged both worlds.

Picotte pursued an ambitious educational path, graduating valedictorian from the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1889, making her the first Indigenous woman to earn a medical degree. Returning to the Omaha Reservation, she embarked on a medical career that defied norms, serving an extensive community and advocating for public health reforms, including the fight against tuberculosis and alcohol abuse. Her work extended beyond medicine to include social reform and the legal rights of the Omaha people.

Susan La Flesche Picotte’s legacy as a pioneering physician and tireless advocate for the Omaha tribe’s health and sovereignty is monumental. She passed away in September 1915 from bone cancer after a life dedicated to improving public health and advocating for the rights of her people. Her contributions laid foundational changes in the medical field and the treatment of Native American rights, reflecting a life of unwavering commitment to her community.

2. Charles Alexander Eastman (1858–1939)

Charles Alexander Eastman, born in February 1858 as Hakadah in Minnesota to a Santee Dakota father and a mixed-race mother, embarked on a remarkable journey from his indigenous roots to becoming a pioneering Native American physician. Despite the early loss of his mother and a childhood marked by the Dakota War of 1862, Eastman bridged two worlds, navigating his way through American education to become the first Native American certified in Western medicine. His upbringing, deeply rooted in Dakota traditions yet influenced by his father’s embrace of Christianity and education, laid the foundation for his future contributions.

After graduating from Boston University as one of the first Native Americans certified as a European-style doctor, Eastman served on the Pine Ridge and Crow Creek Reservations in South Dakota. There, he cared for survivors of the Wounded Knee Massacre, demonstrating his commitment to improving Native American healthcare. His medical practice extended beyond treating physical ailments, incorporating efforts to uplift Native American communities through education and social reforms. His marriage to Elaine Goodale, a teacher and Indian welfare activist, further intertwined his professional and personal life with the cause of Native American rights and education.

Eastman’s legacy as a physician is interwoven with his advocacy for Native American rights and his prolific writing, which offered a Native American perspective on history and culture. By the time of his death in 1939 from a heart attack, Eastman had made significant contributions not only to medicine but also to the social and political landscape for Native Americans. His work in founding Native American chapters of the YMCA and helping establish the Boy Scouts of America underscores a life dedicated to serving and improving his people, blending his medical expertise with a deep commitment to social reform.

3. Carlos Montezuma (1866–1923)

Carlos Montezuma, born Wassaja around 1866 near Four Peaks, Arizona, emerged from a tumultuous childhood to become a trailblazer in medicine and Native American rights. Kidnapped by Pima Raiders and sold to an Italian photographer, he was renamed Carlos Montezuma. This early adversity did not deter him; instead, it propelled him towards remarkable achievements in education and medicine, ultimately becoming the first Native American male to receive a medical degree.

Montezuma’s educational journey was extraordinary, showcasing his resilience and dedication. After being adopted, he excelled in his studies, eventually attending the University of Illinois and Northwestern University, where he earned his medical degree. His time at the Carlisle Indian School as a resident physician further highlighted his commitment to improving healthcare for Native Americans, blending his medical expertise with a deep understanding of his heritage.

Passing away in 1923 due to tuberculosis, Montezuma’s legacy as a physician and an activist remains influential. His outspoken criticism of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and his foundational role in the Society of American Indians reflect a life dedicated to advocating for Native American rights and healthcare. Montezuma’s work laid important groundwork for future generations, merging his medical knowledge with a fierce commitment to social justice.

4. Carolyn Barcus (1939-present)

Carolyn Gay Barcus, born in Alberta, Canada, in 1939 and raised on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation in Montana, has significantly contributed to psychology, particularly in supporting Native American students. Her upbringing in a community rich in culture and tradition laid the foundation for her future work. Barcus pursued higher education with vigor, achieving a bachelor’s degree in Physical Education from Montana State University and a master’s degree from Utah State University. Finally, a Doctorate of Education in Counseling Psychology, preparing her for a pioneering career in psychology and education.

Barcus’s research into self-actualization education began during her dissertation at Utah State University, focusing on enhancing education strategies for Native American students. This work emphasized the importance of experiential learning and aimed at improving teachers’ interpersonal and communication skills to support student growth. Her dedication to education and psychology reflects a deep commitment to fostering environments that promote self-actualization and empowerment among Native American students, demonstrating her role as a bridge between traditional knowledge and modern educational practices.

Over her career, Barcus transitioned from teaching to psychology, driven by her experiences with the Bureau of Indian Affairs Relocation Program. Her work as a mental health specialist and later as a clinical assistant professor and clinical director at Utah State University underscored her commitment to mentorship and support for Native American students in psychology. Recognized for her contributions, Barcus received the Samuel M. Turner Mentor Award from the American Psychological Association in 2006, cementing her legacy as a trailblazer and mentor in psychology for Native American communities and beyond.

5. Connie Redbird Pinkerman-Uri (1928–2009)

Constance Redbird “Connie” Pinkerman-Uri, born on September 3, 1928, in Wheatland, California, emerged as a trailblazing figure in the medical and legal fields. As a member of the Choctaw and Cherokee tribes, her unique upbringing influenced her dedication to advocating for Native American rights. Graduating as a doctor from the University of Arkansas in 1955, she established the first free Indian hospital in Los Angeles during the 1960s, demonstrating her commitment to improving healthcare access for Native American communities.

In the 1970s, Pinkerman-Uri’s career turned pivotal when she returned to academia to pursue law, graduating with a JD from Whittier College in 1979. Her transition from medicine to law was driven by a passion for justice, particularly in addressing the involuntary sterilizations of Native American women by the Indian Health Service. Her investigation into these practices not only highlighted a grave injustice but also led to significant legal and policy changes, showcasing her impact as a dedicated advocate for Native American rights.

Connie Pinkerman-Uri’s legacy is marked by her relentless pursuit of justice and her groundbreaking achievements as the first Native American woman to hold degrees in both law and medicine. Her work led to the prohibition of involuntary sterilizations, leaving an indelible mark on the rights of Native American women and healthcare practices. Passing away on June 8, 2009, Pinkerman-Uri’s life and career continue to inspire future generations of Native American medical and legal professionals, embodying a spirit of resilience and advocacy.

6. Wa-o-wa-wa-na-onk (died 1871)

Wa-o-wa-wa-na-onk, also known as Peter Wilson, was born into the Cayuga nation and raised on the Seneca Buffalo Reservation. His upbringing in a community deeply rooted in tradition and resilience laid the foundation for his path toward education and leadership. Educated in Quaker schools on the reservation, he embarked on a journey to become one of the first Native Americans to earn a medical degree from Geneva Medical College in 1844, marking a significant achievement in the history of Native American professionals in the medical field.

As a physician, Wa-o-wa-wa-na-onk’s contributions extended beyond the realm of medicine. He also served as an interpreter on the Cattaraugus Reservation, utilizing his skills and education to bridge the gap between cultures and communities. Despite some records listing him as a chief or “Grand Sachem,” the clarity around his official title remains uncertain. However, his role in his community and his efforts to navigate the complexities of Native American rights and land treaties underscore his importance as a leader and advocate.

Wa-o-wa-wa-na-onk’s legacy is defined by his advocacy and dedication to the Cayuga people, especially in his work to reverse fraudulent land treaties and seek justice for losing Iroquois lands. His efforts to engage with the New York Historical Society, the Governor of New York, and the New York State Legislature highlight his commitment to the cause of his people. Passing away in 1871, his life’s work as a medical professional and a possible chief reflects a profound dedication to serving his community and advocating for Native American rights, setting a precedent for future generations.

7. Lori Arviso Alvord (1958-present)

Lori Arviso Alvord, born in 1958 in Crownpoint, New Mexico, on a Navajo reservation, is a pioneering figure in integrating Indigenous healing practices with Western medicine. The daughter of a Diné father and a White mother grew up in a household where English was the primary language, yet she remained deeply connected to her Navajo roots. Her upbringing in a bicultural environment significantly shaped her holistic approach to medicine, emphasizing the importance of treating the mind, body, and spirit.

Dr. Alvord’s educational journey is notable for her achievements and groundbreaking status. After completing her high school education in Crownpoint, she attended Dartmouth College, majoring in psychology and sociology with a minor in Native American studies. Her pursuit of medicine led her to Stanford University Medical School, where she earned her M.D. in 1985. Alvord’s residency at Stanford University Hospital culminated in becoming the first Diné woman to be board-certified in surgery, marking a significant milestone in her career and for Native American women in the medical field.

Throughout her career, Dr. Alvord has dedicated herself to improving healthcare for Native American communities, blending traditional Navajo healing methods with modern medical practices. Her work on the Navajo reservation and her role as a surgeon has been complemented by her contributions to medical education and public health, including her tenure at Dartmouth Medical School and her involvement with the Indian Health Service. Dr. Alvord’s autobiography, “The Scalpel and the Silver Bear,” chronicles her journey and serves as a testament to her commitment to creating a healthcare environment that respects and incorporates Indigenous knowledge and practices.

8. Annie Dodge Waukena (1910–1997)

Annie Dodge Wauneka was born in 1910 near Sawmill, Arizona, into the Navajo Nation to Navajo leader Henry Chee Dodge and K’eehabah. Raised in a family prominent in Navajo leadership, her early experiences herding farm animals and visiting her mother, who herded sheep, laid the foundation for her deep connection to Navajo traditions and community needs. These formative years instilled in her a strong sense of responsibility and dedication to her people, which would later define her career and contributions to public health within the Navajo Nation.

Wauneka’s education began at a Bureau of Indian Affairs Boarding School, where her firsthand experience with the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic sparked her interest in public health. Despite facing another outbreak of trachoma during her fourth-grade year, Wauneka’s resolve only strengthened, leading her to pursue further education at the Albuquerque Indian School. Her academic journey culminated in receiving a bachelor’s degree in public health from the University of Arizona, supplemented by an honorary doctorate from the University of New Mexico. These academic achievements equipped her with the knowledge and skills to make significant contributions to the health and welfare of the Navajo Nation.

Throughout her career, Wauneka tirelessly worked to improve health standards and education among the Navajo people. Her groundbreaking work translating English medical terms into Navajo, hosting a radio show to discuss health issues, and advocating for better healthcare, sanitation, and housing in the Navajo Nation has left an indelible mark. Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Wauneka’s legacy as a formidable advocate for public health and a trailblazer in integrating traditional knowledge with modern healthcare practices continues to inspire. Her death in 1997 marked the end of a remarkable life dedicated to service, but her impact on public health and the Navajo Nation endures.

9. Marigold Linton (1936-present)

Marigold Linton, born in 1936 on the Morongo Reservation in Southern California, embarked on a groundbreaking journey in psychology as a member of the Morongo Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians. Overcoming the challenges of poverty and adversity, she became the first Native American to earn a doctorate in psychology in 1964. Her educational path took her from the University of California, Riverside, where she was the first Indian from a California reservation to attend college, to earning her Ph.D. from UCLA. This achievement not only shattered barriers for herself but also set a precedent for future generations of Native American students in the academic sphere.

Throughout her career, Linton’s contributions to cognitive psychology, particularly her research in long-term memory, have been widely recognized and cited. Beyond her academic accomplishments, Linton has been instrumental in developing and supporting programs to enhance opportunities for American Indian students and faculty in biomedical research. Her efforts include securing substantial grants for partnerships between the University of Kansas and Haskell Indian Nations University, demonstrating her commitment to fostering educational and professional opportunities for Native American communities in the sciences.

Linton’s influence extends beyond academia into advocacy and leadership roles, notably as a co-founder of the National Indian Education Association and the Society for Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS). Through these organizations, she has advocated for science education and career opportunities for underrepresented minority students. Her tenure as SACNAS president and involvement in numerous significant national appointments underscore her dedication to promoting equality and opportunity in science and education. Marigold Linton’s legacy as a pioneer in psychology and tireless advocate for Native American education continues to inspire and impact the field.

10. Kathleen Annette (1955-present)

Kathleen Annette, born in 1955, emerged from the Red Lake Indian Reservation to break education and public health barriers. As the first Ojibwe woman to become a doctor, Annette’s upbringing and heritage deeply influenced her commitment to improving healthcare for Native American communities. Her journey from a reservation high school to earning a doctor of medicine degree from the University of Minnesota Medical School in 1983 exemplifies her resilience and dedication to overcoming educational hurdles, setting a powerful example for future generations.

Upon completing her residency at the Duluth Family Practice Center in 1986, Annette’s career took a significant turn toward public service. Her role as a medical officer for the Indian Health Service at the Leech Lake Service Unit marked the beginning of her profound impact on healthcare for Native Americans in the Upper Midwest. Her ascent to the director of the entire Bemidji Area of the IHS in 1990 allowed her to oversee health services for sixty thousand Native Americans, showcasing her leadership and deep commitment to addressing public health issues within Native American tribes.

Today, Kathleen Annette continues her influential work as the president and CEO of the Blandin Foundation, focusing on empowering communities in rural Minnesota. Her transition from a groundbreaking medical career to a leadership role in philanthropy reflects her enduring dedication to public health and community development. Through her extensive efforts in addressing Native American public health issues and inspiring the next generation of Native American professionals, Annette has cemented her legacy as a trailblazer in medicine and community advocacy.