Ancient Accusations of Human Sacrifice
The contentious history of the term human sacrifice makes it a complex issue. For instance, there is no guarantee that original participants thought of it as a sacrifice, but certain external requirements create terms for different kinds of killings. These forces could transform a term into a reflection of a theorist’s own views, since sacrifice itself does not have an ontological status because of its contested nature, leading to endless symbolic meanings.
One aspect remains clear — sacrifice was based on reciprocity, since it formed part of an ongoing exchange between mortals and the divine, but there was also an earthly context. Sacrifices are born out of an anxiety to ensure the continued existence of individuals, often in a time of crisis or disintegration.
One instance of such a crisis, for the Romans, was during the Second Punic War, after Hannibal had achieved his famous victory at Cannae (216 BCE), when he was believed to be marching on Rome. Romans turned to religious institutions for relief (Livy The History of Rome 22. 57. 6):
In the meantime, by the direction of the Books of Fate, some unusual sacrifices were offered; amongst others a Gaulish man and woman and a Greek man and woman were buried alive in the Cattle Market, in…
