What would JESUS Do?
Countering Violent Extremism in Ancient Rome
The ancient Jewish Sicarii, credited with inciting the Jewish revolt against Roman forces occupying Judea (modern day Israel and Palestine) in 66 AD, provide a unique perspective through which to view the invariable nature of mankind and the equally enduring features of terrorism. Although separated by centuries, modern insurgency and terrorist organizations would recognize aspects of the Sicarii’s motivations and methods. Modern governments would equally appreciate the pitfalls encountered by the Roman military as they sought to counter an extremist faction committed to expelling a foreign presence.
These parallels remain relevant to modern dialogue because of the arguable success of the Sicarii in provoking a mass insurrection that, although ultimately failing, provides a framework to help us understand what is unique to the modern terrorism we face today and, conversely, some of the more timeless aspects of the phenomenon. This is particularly relevant in the aftermath of the recent attacks against the Charlie Hebdo newspaper and subsequent targets in Paris. Instead of attracting others to their cause, the terrorist’s violent killing of 17 people sparked an impressive show of national solidarity in Paris and around the world. However, despite the overwhelming demonstration in Paris, the threat of violent extremism remains. Thousands of individuals with Western passports and terrorist training in Syrian camps currently represent a potentially destabilizing force not only in France and other European nations, but in the United States as well. Perhaps some insight into their motivations and grievances can be gained from a review of the ancient Sicarii, arguable one of the world’s first terrorist organizations.
The Sicarii are known for conducing a campaign of bold assassinations and kidnapping that, according to the ancient historian Josephus, served to incite a popular Jewish uprising against the Romans in Judea that triggered the First Roman-Jewish War. The group’s ideological motivations were both religious and political. Politically, the Sicarii were responding to the challenge posed by the growing dominance of foreign forces in Judea. The initial conquest dated back to 63 BC, when the Roman general Pompey took over Jerusalem as part of the empire’s eastward expansion. Jewish autonomy over the ensuing decades had decreased with the previously independent territory devolving into a tribute, and then a province of the Roman Empire by 41 A.D.
The Sicarii’s actions were also religiously motivated. Chafing under a polytheist, pagan Roman culture wholly incompatible with Judaism, the Sicarii and other Jewish citizens were shamed by a litany of Roman affronts. These included the first destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem by Pompey and the plundering of temple finances by Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate to fund city infrastructure projects in 26 A.D.
The Sicarii responded to what they considered to be an existential challenge by distancing and distinquishing themselves from the Romans conquerors, but also from other Jews who did not share their experience. One can imagine the circumstances in which identification as a Sicarii came to define and reinforce a positive and emotionally validating association among its members. Opportunity for social mobility and access to the dominant political system were monopolized by the priestly aristocracy and those affluent Jews who had aligned themselves with the Roman culture and political structures while religious expression was undermined through overt acts and passive contempt. Given the distance in time, one must make some assumptions, but a strong case can be made for a subset of the marginalized Jews first appreciating, and then building on the bounds of group association to repair a damaged social identity.
However, the fact remains that not all marginalized Jews in the Judea providence, or even in the city of Jerusalem became Sicarii. Understanding why some individuals among a similarly situated population can become radicalized while others are not remains a topic of interest to students of modern terrorism.
Although the Sicarii predated Grotius’ distinctions between types of just war and violence, their methods of attack intentionally violated contemporary cultural, social, and religious norms. In this regard, the Sicarii’s predated the “propaganda by deeds” mantra popularized by Carlo Pisacane in their use of violent acts to spread the message and elicit support for their goals. The audacity and frequency of the attacks, conducted in crowded temples or streets and often on holy days, were designed to publicize the Sicarii’s message in an era with limited means of communication. These acts served to undermine any moderate attempts at securing peace and, by provoking equally atrocious reprisals from the Roman forces, steadily expanded the conflict.
Although historical references to the Sicarii continue throughout the first Century, it is clear that hundreds of members of the group and other Jewish supporters fled to the fortress at Masada after the destruction of Jerusalem by Roman forces in 70 AC. This group refused to accede to Roman dominance and committed mass suicide in 73 CE rather than surrender. While historical scholars continue to debate the events at Masada, the event provides some insight into a likely instance in which collective suicide was intended as part of a broader war strategy.
