Strangers in the Sky: A Designer’s Guide to Tackling Urban Loneliness, Part A
M. Arch Thesis — by Kathleen Fu, The University of Waterloo
Abstract
Research in cognitive science has revealed that being social is a fundamental component of being happy and studies have shown that mental health is greatly affected by the spatial and social construct of the built environment. The contemporary urban dweller in today’s society often experiences social isolation and loneliness despite living in close proximity to thousands of other people. For those living in high-rises specifically, issues surrounding chronic loneliness are now recognized as a concern to public health. People living in high-rises are reported to be more socially isolated, know very few of their neighbours and are generally less embedded in their community. The way we have constructed the built environment has created increasingly anti-social and hostile spaces, which lends itself to a more negative perception of society as a whole.
This thesis will investigate the spatial conditions that contribute to the relatively new phenomenon of urban loneliness, with a focus on student accommodation buildings. The primary objective of this research is to graphically translate architectural findings based on case studies, readings, and other sources and distill them into a set of design principles for socialization in high-rise buildings for future use. Guidelines not only create a precedent for future architectural projects but are incredibly important to the practice itself. This research will identify opportunities to facilitate human connection within urban communities and imagines methods of minimizing the effects of loneliness in high rises of the future.
Introduction
Through readings of recent scholarship on loneliness across disciplinary boundaries such as sociology, cognitive science, and psychogeography, I will be discussing the varying perspectives on this topic and their intersection with architecture and urbanism. In the following sections, I will begin by defining what loneliness is, how the perception of loneliness has changed throughout history, and then go on to examine how the built environment can negatively impact mental health.
WHAT IS LONELINESS?
Simply put, loneliness is a mismatch between an individual’s social relations and the individual’s desired social relations.¹ Loneliness is a subjective and negative experience that affects all ages and socioeconomic backgrounds. Although loneliness is often caused by social isolation, they are not to be considered one in the same. Objective isolation does not necessarily lead to loneliness, but it is subjective isolation, where one perceives that they do not belong or lacks confidants, which leads to loneliness.² Whether or not you are surrounded by others, you may still feel lonely and socially isolated. On the other hand, someone who is alone, quite literally, or in a state of solitude can be perfectly content.³ The concept of being alone and feeling lonely should not be confused with one another and being lonely always refers to negative feelings and unhappiness.
LONELINESS AND HUMAN EVOLUTION
John T. Cacioppo and William Patrick’s book, Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection (2008), focusses on the biology of loneliness and some of its startling impacts on physical and mental well-being. Cacioppo argues that the “sensations associated with loneliness evolved because they contribute to our survival as a species”.⁴ “Physical pain protects the individual from physical dangers” and “social pain, also known as loneliness, evolved for a similar reason: because it protected the individual from the danger of remaining isolated”.⁵ In a lecture Cacioppo gave at Cornell University’s College of Human Ecology, he states that humans lack the defensive evolutionary advantages that other animals have (i.e. sharp teeth, claws, wings, etc…). However, our advantage is our mind’s ability to reason, think and work collectively. It is through collaboration and developing dependence in groups that has allowed us to survive and thrive. Throughout evolution, collaboration amongst mates with the investment in protecting their offspring meant that their offspring would become more mentally and behaviourally complex. This led to greater diversity, innovation and the rapid cultural development of our species.⁶ Much like hunger and thirst reminds us that we need food or water, loneliness reminds us of when we are lacking in social interaction.⁷
LONELINESS IN ANTIQUITY
Barbara Taylor, Professor of Humanities at Queen Mary College London discusses the relationship between loneliness and solitude and how it has changed over the centuries. Taylor leads research into the health-related history of modern Western solitude. In her interview on the BBC’s podcast called “The Anatomy of Loneliness”, she describes an aphorism derived from Aristotle but originally coined by Francis Bacon which states:
“Whosoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild beast or a God”
— Francis Bacon ⁸
This quote emphasizes the perception of solitude as extreme and unnatural. The comparison to a “beast” is made because being truly human means you would seek the company of others. A “god” refers to someone who is self-sufficient and exists on a different realm than other human beings. So far, we have understood humans as social beings so those who sought the opposite were condemned.
Romanticism, however, places more value on solitude as part of a “rich realm of experience”.⁹ There are different implications of solitude for people of superior creativity like poets, artists, and religious figures. For the rest of society, solitude was associated with melancholy and depression. Philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote about solitude as a condition of desolation but at the same time he describes melancholy as “pleasurable pain”.¹⁰ During this time, the concept of aloneness wavered between something positive and negative.
According to Taylor’s hypothesis, the modern phenomenon of loneliness doesn’t come into existence until mid to late 19th century. In our minds today, there is a link between modern society and loneliness with a critique of the modern world as an “alienating and estranging place”.¹¹
DIMENSIONS OF LONELINESS
Humans as a social species not only require the presence of other people but it is essential to be amongst significant others whom we trust.¹² Loneliness is an incredibly complex construct to understand but scholars have further compartmentalized loneliness into 3 types (or “dimensions”): intimate loneliness, relational loneliness, and collective loneliness.¹³ Each dimension corresponds to one’s attentional space based on Edward T. Hall’s work on human distances. These spaces are known as: personal space, relational space, and collective space.¹⁴ As architects and designers, we can also imagine this as the three scales of space we most commonly work between: private, semi-public, and public.
This hierarchy of spaces also exists within the context of a high-rise building and will be further discussed in later sections. Private spaces include the private dwelling or apartment unit. Semi-public spaces can be corridors, balconies, circulation spaces, and amenity spaces alike. Finally, public spaces can be translated as larger public amenities or publicly accessible spaces that exist in high-rise buildings.
CONSEQUENCES OF LONELINESS
Unfortunately, loneliness does not travel alone. There are a number of dangerous physical and psychiatric health problems that loneliness contributes to including alcoholism, depression, suicidal thoughts, and anxiety.¹⁵ It is also a risk factor for premature mortality, cognitive decline, the progression of Alzheimer’s disease and other harmful ailments.¹⁶ In many reports, loneliness is proven to be worse for health than smoking 15 cigarettes a day¹⁷ and increases mortality risk more than obesity, excessive alcohol consumption and air pollution.¹⁸
OBJECTIVES AND DESIGN APPROACH
This research has been heavily invested in understanding the impact that architecture and space design have on loneliness through evidence-based findings. The objective of this thesis is to generate a suite of design suggestions for tackling loneliness in high-rise student accommodation buildings. The reasoning behind selecting students as s demographic group will be detailed in later sections but the ways loneliness negatively impacts public health has been made quite obvious already. The design recommendations will vary in size and scale but can be valuable information for property developers, architects, institutions, designers and non-designers alike who are interested in this topic. The culminating design project will be a physical booklet that utilizes architectural graphics and illustrations to easily communicate ideas and raise awareness of this population level problem.
The overall framework of the thesis is broken down into 3 main parts but first provides a high-level introduction into loneliness, how it is defined by specialists, and an overview of existing literature on the topic. PART A looks at the factors that contribute to loneliness in cities and identifies university or college students as a vulnerable segment of the population. PART B is a case study of various buildings on the University of Waterloo’s Campus in Ontario, Canada. In order to understand the ways student residence buildings are constructed and occupied today, site visits were conducted to compare both campus-owned and developer owned properties. This section also includes a list of existing architectural projects from around the world which possess design elements that could contribute to reducing loneliness. PART C takes the findings and research from the previous sections and distills them into 8 core values that can reduce loneliness. Attached to each are a series of specific design suggestions that can be implemented in various ways. This section includes a series of illustrations which reimagines a hypothetical high-rise building with the design principles in mind. The vignettes are snapshots of how the design suggestions might be embodied. Finally, the conclusion of the thesis reflects on the results of this process, summarizes the feedback and initial impressions of the guidelines, and discusses next steps on how the document can be improved moving forward.
THE IMPACT OF GUIDELINES
In the previous sections, the basic description of loneliness has been laid out, but what do we do with this information and how do we address this problem with the maximum impact possible? The decision to present this information in the format of a design guideline book reflects many of the recommendations listed in existing studies
on loneliness, which urges government agencies to partner with architects.¹⁹ In addition to this, directors of housing at institutions like the University of Waterloo, have expressed a desire for more effectively designed student residence buildings on campus.²⁰ Design guidelines are used in the architectural practice regularly and act as a starting point for other architectural projects to emerge. A good set of design suggestions offers a foundation of basic principles without restricting creativity in design. These principles are not intended to be a highly technical construction manual but instead, offer a catalogue of ideas to inspire the layperson, property owner, architects, and policy makers who wish to address the issue of loneliness.
While creating the “Strangers in the Sky”, other guideline documents were researched and used as references. Studying the framework of other design guideline documents helped to develop the format of the guideline, determining a structure for organizing information. Designed to Engage²¹ is a series of policy recommendations to promote sociability in multi-family housing design. The Avenues and Mid-rise Buildings Study²² presents a series of performance standards and optimal conditions for designing mid-rise buildings. Finally, Neufert’s Architect’s Data is an important reference book for architects.²³ Its graphic style is highly effective in communicating detailed spatial conditions and even provides space needs for furniture and various relevant objects.
Knowledge on urban loneliness and designing high-rise student residences was acquired through existing literature on the subject, speaking to experts, and performing case studies. The research gathered was is also supplemented by the author’s own experiences with loneliness and the built environment. The successful integration of good design principles will help to promote healthy and livable communities while reducing the effects of loneliness.
PART A : A CATALOGUE OF URBAN LONELINESS
Now that the basic definition of loneliness, its origins, and how it has been perceived over centuries has been outlined, we will now look at the phenomenon of urban loneliness.
Urban loneliness describes lonely individuals living in cities; an intersection between a mental state with the built environment.
As mentioned previously, Professor Barbara Taylor describes the alienating and estranging nature of modern society as a contributor to this problem.²⁴ Taylor’s hypothesis is correct in many ways when you consider how life in the 21st century is unlike any other in human history. We are living longer, and the pace of technological innovations has completely transformed the way we live, work, and play. At the same time, the rise of the Internet, the prioritization of career building and the fast-paced lifestyle in the urban metropolis means we spend less time maintaining relationships and forming meaningful bonds with other people.
Recent statistics²⁵ have revealed how common loneliness is (especially so in developed countries) but why exactly are cities becoming the new capitals of social isolation? There is no single answer to this question. Instead, a number of factors surrounding urban life have contributed to the growing sense of isolation among city dwellers.
The following section includes an analysis of the spatial conditions that have contributed to urban loneliness represented by annotated isometric illustrations. This spatial catalogue of loneliness was created using evidence from literature, film & media, as well as first person experiences:
- The Rise of Solo Living
- Technology
- Long Commutes and Decentralized Suburban Living
- Commercialization of Loneliness
- Anti-social and Hostile Public Spaces
As previously mentioned, loneliness is a response to social isolation that encourages survival in groups as opposed to being alone. Over time, humans have developed heightened sensitivities in fear of threats that can potentially cause bodily or psychological harm. Colin Ellard draws the connection between the rapid urbanization of our society today and the deteriorating state of our health. He says that “for urban dwellers, there is also some irony in the fact that the same set of impulses that we use to protect ourselves from the prying eyes of strangers is partly responsible for one of the greatest psychological blights of big cities; the epidemic of loneliness”.²⁶
THE RISE OF SOLO LIVING
There is no clear-cut explanation or single cause for urban loneliness but many specialists have identified possible influences such as immigration, low marriage rates, solo living, decentralized suburban living resulting in longer commutes and technological media.²⁷ Although each of these factors carry their own set of circumstances and issues, they can all be considered by-products of rapid urbanization, which is one of the main societal shifts in recent history.
People once relied on tribalism and social bonding which occurred naturally in small groups as opposed to mass societies. There has been an obvious transition from rural or suburban living arrangements (which prioritized habitation in small groups and staying in close proximity to members of kin) to the metropolitan lifestyle that idealizes the one-bedroom bachelor pad in a shiny downtown condominium. According to a recent study conducted using Canada’s 2016 Census data, the number of persons living alone in Canada has more than doubled over the last 35 years, from 1.7 million in 1981 to 4.0 million in 2016.²⁸ Solo dwellers represented 14% of the population aged 15 and over living in private households in 2016, up from 9% in 1981.²⁹ With that said, Eric Klinenberg, a Professor of Sociology, Public Policy, and Global Health at New York University, does not believe that living alone necessarily means you will experience isolation and loneliness. Instead, Klinenberg sees these as three distinct conditions (living alone, being socially isolated, and feeling lonely).³⁰ According to his research, the risks of social isolation are dependent on where in the world you live and the quality of the social environment.³¹
The illustration titled “The Solo Dweller” is an axonometric view of
a generic apartment unit and focusses on the typical activities that would take place there. Although someone who lives alone is not necessarily lonely, it is more likely that they spend more time socially isolated within their dwelling and may be more prone to keeping to themselves. The price of real estate and rental costs in densely populated downtown areas could also be a key reason why many people choose to live alone. Many young professionals move away from friends and family to urban centers in pursuit of their careers or higher education. The social changes that have occurred in the past decades led to more flexible attitudes towards family structure making living alone common.³² The diagram shows how technological systems make it convenient for the solo dweller to remain in isolation. Food delivery apps (i.e. Uber Eats, Foodora, DoorDash, etc.) have become extremely popular and an individual can order meals from their local restaurants without leaving the comfort of their bedroom. People who live alone may choose to spend more time socializing online and even eating alone.
TECHNOLOGY
Since the birth of the Internet, the way we interact with our built environment and with each other has been completely transformed by new media technologies. Is it possible that our devices are partially responsible for the loneliness epidemic we’ve found ourselves in? On the one hand, the temporal and spatial boundaries that once limited creative production no longer exist and the wealth of knowledge that is available online at nearly instantaneous speeds is a sure sign of progress. For the vast majority of the population, we have been quick to trade in aspects of our real lives for virtual ones.³³ The perceived dangers in the physical world have left us to fill the void left by the decline of community with computer-mediated social encounters;
an environment where we can be anonymous if we choose to be, continuing to retreat further from reality. However, these virtual relationships are only temporary fixes and act as a veil for the desire of true human intimacy. This can only be achieved with face-to-face interaction in real life that allow us to connect on a much deeper level; through subliminal cues like body language and body chemistry. Cacioppo and Patrick state in their book Loneliness, that the “the mind that seeks to connect is first about the body and leaving the body behind can make human connections less satisfying”.³⁴
In the 2018 documentary film, The People’s Republic of Desire, real life human connections are being replaced by virtual relationships. The film follows a group of working-class Chinese people turned internet celebrities as they navigate their way through the lucrative business of online streaming. This trend has exploded, and live streaming has reached 325 million users.³⁵ The backdrop of The People’s Republic of Desire is set in various urban cities in China to emphasize the fast- paced nature of city life in contrast with simpler conditions in rural villages. Many career-oriented people rely on live-streamers as a default source of entertainment. One woman said that “ [she] needs to find something else to do other than trading stocks [and that her] social circle is too small”.³⁶ Live streaming gained popularity not only in Asian countries but have recently been adopted by North American Youtubers³⁷ which simulate the feeling of dining with a companion. Some may say this is an honest attempt and connecting with people in 2020 but more would say online entertainers are capitalizing on a growing society of lonely people.
Other technological systems are seamlessly integrated into our built environment often aimed at crime prevention. However, it has a paradoxical effect and creates a heightened sense of fear and lack of trust within society. As our technology gets more intelligent, it enables us to discriminate against certain individuals and prevent unwanted interactions between citizens and authorities. Some low- tech repellent systems such as the mosquito device or blue and pink neon lights have proven to be controversial and criticized for being a violation of human rights.³⁸ With the introduction of surveillance systems and CCTV (closed-circuit television)³⁹ we’ve become accustomed to being monitored in public. The use of technological design as a method of social control can be a visual marker of security but it actually undermines the individual and collective responsibility for each other’s safety. It not only discourages the presence of strangers, but it also increases people’s fear of strangers entering their environment.
LONG COMMUTES AND DECENTRALIZED SUBURBAN LIVING
A recent study out of UBC’s Vancouver School of Economics and McGill University looks at factors which influence happiness in densely populated Canadian cities such as Toronto and Vancouver. They concluded that long traffic commutes and housing unaffordability greatly contribute to anxiety and depression.⁴⁰
Long commute times have also been proven to be bad for community life. Each additional ten minutes of commuting in daily commuting time cuts involvement in community affairs by 10%.⁴¹ Those who commute by car are stuck in the prison of their vehicles for hours a day, often with only the radio or a podcast for company. The average person will rarely talk to someone while commuting, and people have found ways to signal the fact that they want to be left alone by creating barriers
in public space (i.e. putting their bags or feet up on nearby seats so no one will sit there, looking down at our smartphones to seem busy, wearing headphones to block out the noise of other people….etc.). Trains often put up “Quiet Zone” signs, which discourage social interaction on public transit by prioritizing respecting the privacy of others. In many cases, people are less likely to stop and chat with someone during their commute and are generally more concerned about getting where they’re going.
COMMERCIALIZATION OF LONELINESS
Not only are more people living alone in today’s society, but many businesses are beginning to cater to the needs of the “loner”. People who live and work in cities often need a place to have a “quick but substantial knife-and-fork meal before heading back to their busy, overworked lives”.⁴² The stigma surrounding dining solo is slowly dissolving and many people spend less time to getting together with friends and loved ones to share a meal. The “one-person eatery” is becoming more common creating physical changes in the public dining space. Partitioned booths and cubicles have replaced small tables, and, in many restaurants, digital ordering systems mean that the patron no longer has to interact with a server or hostess. Anti- loneliness cafes like Moomin House, in Japan, provide patrons with a plush doll to keep them company during their stay.⁴³ At a popular Japanese ramen chain, Ichiran, customers pre-order their food on an arcade game-like slot machine before being led down a “dark narrow path” to their individual booth.⁴⁴ There is a small curtained opening in front of each booth where two disembodied hands will hand you your order when it is ready. A customer described their experience in a solo stall at Ichiran as “like a library carrel, a peep show, or a confessional”.⁴⁵ While the concept of solo dining has proven to be trendy and also efficient, the communal aspect of dining and food’s ability to bring people together has been broken.
ANTI-SOCIAL AND HOSTILE PUBLIC SPACES
Human beings possess the ability to creatively seek novel solutions for their problems and throughout history, we have been utilizing architecture to create symbolic and material barriers that separate us from perceived threats. The fortresses and castles of 11th century Europe were built to prevent invasion by implementing elements like moats, drawbridges, and often sat on cliffs and mountain tops. This category of design is known as defensive or hostile architecture; spaces constructed not for “pleasantness”, but with the purpose of deterring undesirable behaviour. In a way, defensive architecture is important, and even necessary, for keeping us safe from the real and tangible dangers in our world. But we have reached a point where the desire for protection and privacy is hindering social intimacy and physical interaction between people. For centuries, hostile architecture has been an effective method of social control in public spaces. Hostile design has the ability to control our movement within the built environment and our interactions with others. However, it leads to a new set of problems by creating anti-social spaces and compromises the enjoyment and usability of public space. Hostile design is also referred to as unpleasant design.
“Unpleasant design refers to things that are intentionally and successfully rendered unusable, or uncomfortable for people to use. It’s not about objects that are badly designed, but the opposite — objects, devices and spaces that are well designed in order to prohibit a particular use or behaviour. In other words, it’s a form of social control. Design a bad bench so homeless people don’t linger; fence off your sitting-out area so people don’t spend too much time there.” ⁴⁶
-Serbian architect, Selena Savic in an interview with South China Morning Post
Furniture and objects in public space generate a sense of permanence and non-negotiability that prevent people from engaging in specific activities. Instead of a police officer or security guard telling someone to leave the premises, a surface with anti-sleeping spikes or a bench with no backrest can do the same job in a subtle way. An inanimate object bolted to the ground takes away the possibility of conflict between a person and an authority figure. In many ways, hostile architecture makes this kind of human interaction unnecessary.
By removing a level of individual freedom, it leaves no room for spontaneous social encounters. There are countless examples of street objects that are purposely designed to be unpleasant for certain individuals. These day to day objects ranges from a park bench to a sculpture which are intended to exclude already marginalized populations (most commonly, youth and the homeless).
The careful placement of street furniture or seating can manipulate the behavior of its users and in some cases, seating is removed altogether. Terminal 5 of the London Heathrow Airport provides 700 seats for an estimated 35 million people who travel through the airport annually.⁴⁷ The only other alternative for seating is inside the 25 restaurants located within the airport. This discourages loitering and sleeping and those who would like to sit must be willing to pay for it.
The Camden Bench, designed by Factory Furniture, has been praised for its design as an anti-crime and ASB-resistant (anti-social behavior) public object.⁴⁸ The commission for the London Borough of Camden was created to address of list of problems the area was experiencing with rising homelessness and crime. The bench is a concrete slab made with materials that are resistant to graffiti and plastering. Along with a number of other unique characteristics, its lack of backrest and undulating shape make it uncomfortable to sit on for long periods of time and is very difficult to sleep on. The bench successfully prevented rough sleeping in the public but this also caused property values in the area to go up.⁴⁹ While this may not seem like a negative result, but the Camden Bench played a role in gentrifying the borough and displaced people rather than addressing the underlying social issues.
Anti-skating bolts, usually made of metal, are attached to a surface and render any object used for grinding or performing skate tricks useless. Anti-tagging surfaces can be created using a special coating or finish that allows graffiti to be washed away easily. The Berlin Metro uses a graphic print to cover its windows and seats to conceal any additional shapes and markings. The visual complexity of the pattern is used to deter street artists, taggers, and activists. Anti-climbing paint, usually a non-drying oil-based paint, prevent climbers, graffiti artists, and burglars from scaling walls by keeping surfaces greasy and slippery.
Cold seating constructed with stainless steel or anodized aluminum targets the homeless and general public making it uncomfortable to sit for a long time.⁵⁰ Other hostile seating designs include the half bench or the “leanable” bench making it impossible to sleep and rest for more than a few minutes.⁵¹
Seating with armrests is very common and often goes unnoticed. What we often do not consider is that each space between the handles are only wide enough for one person to occupy in a seated position.⁵² The fixed dimension is purposely to stop someone from laying down.
The ability to design objects that manipulate our behaviour is both a benefit and a detriment to society. On the one hand, it can successfully prevent certain activities like vandalism, theft, skateboarding and sleeping. On the other, it excludes the homeless, artists, skateboarders and at times, even the general population. The regulation of public space takes away opportunities for spontaneous encounters and therefore, it is important to design for sociability as opposed to creating environments that perpetuate the fear of other people.
THE HIGH-RISE BUILDING
The previous subsections summarized how loneliness is evident in many aspects of urban life. This section looks at the high-rise building as a site of loneliness to be analyzed further. High-rise buildings make up for the vast majority of development in cities. For developers and city planners in cities with a growing population and housing in high demand, it seems like the best direction to go is up. In a city like Toronto, 44% of residents live in some form of apartment and nearly 3 in 10 dwellings in Toronto were in high-rise apartments buildings.⁵³ As of April 2019, 80 new residential and mixed-use skyscrapers have been proposed in the city.⁵⁴
There are consequences of living in high-rises and the architecture of the buildings themselves contribute to loneliness. People who live in high-rises are reported to be more socially isolated and know very few of their neighbours.⁵⁵ According to Jan Gehl, residents living on the fifth floor and above lose contact with the city and can only focus on views of the sky. Living further from the ground means that they are less likely to interact with their neighbours.⁵⁶
In a typical journey from the street to one’s apartment, residents would travel through the entrance vestibule, lobby, take an often-silent elevator ride up and proceed down a narrow corridor towards their unit. It is very rare for them to speak to any of the residents in their building.⁵⁷ Upon visiting several high-rise apartment buildings located in downtown Toronto, it was also observed that many of the amenity spaces were under-utilized and often completely empty (mail room, gym, games room, party room, etc.).
THE DECLINE OF COMMUNITY
One of the reasons why we are so lonely is due to the lack of embedded-ness in our own community, also described as collective loneliness. Robert Putnam elaborates on the decline of civic and social life in American cities as a whole. Putnam explains that Americans began a pattern of “cocooning” beginning in the 1970s which describes a massive increase in activities like “staying home” and “watching tv” and steep decrease in activities like “visiting friends”, “dining out”, “dancing” and etc…⁵⁸
In the wake of the September 11th attacks, the incident impacted North American culture and architecture greatly. The Twin Towers which were once totems of American “financial might and technological prowess” were suddenly destabilized, shattering the illusion of permanence.⁵⁹ Skyscrapers and densely populated public spaces, once considered to be architectural achievements, were now perceived as targets of violence and hysteria. Media driven fear has also escalated due to the never- ending 24-hour news cycle and other social media platforms spawn further frenzy surrounding world events.⁶⁰ In the 21st century, fear and hysteria has become ingrained into our culture in almost every aspect, from film and art, to the architecture of the spaces we inhabit. The negative perception of society as a whole has impacted the quality of our social relationships and many urban residents fine themselves feeling lonely because the psychological needs of community life are not satisfied.⁶¹
VULNERABLE POPULATION GROUPS
Feeling lonely is a part of the human experience and affects all age groups and socio-economic backgrounds. Studies have compared loneliness amongst different demographics to further understand the problem. The Angus Reid Institute conducted a study in 2019 which revealed the 62% of Canadians wish their friends and family would spend more time with them.62 The study also generated an Index on Loneliness and Isolation (ILSI) which divided the Canadian population into 5 groups:⁶³
- The Desolate — People who are both lonely and isolated, or “very lonely” and “very isolated”
- The Lonely but not Isolated — People who are either “very lonely” or “somewhat lonely” but does not feel isolated
- The Isolated but not Lonely — People who are either “very isolated” or “somewhat isolated” but does not feel they are lonely
- The Moderately Connected — People who are neither “very lonely” or “very isolated” but are not necessarily “not lonely” or “not isolated”. They occupy the middle of the spectrum.
- The Cherished — People who are “not lonely” and “not isolated”
Another interesting finding revealed that the youngest age group (18–24 years old) makes up for 32% of the Desolate and 43% of the Lonely but not Isolated categories. Other studies have shown that Generation “Z” (adults age 18–22) are reported to be the loneliest generation and in worse health than older generations. This age group also coincides with the typical age range of university and college students. Loneliness, anxiety, and depression seem to be a consistent problem amongst the student population.⁶⁴ Furthermore, a study that compared satisfaction in low versus high-rise student residence buildings found that students living in high-rise dorms had a much lower satisfaction rate.⁶⁵ For these reasons, this thesis focusses on university students as a vulnerable segment of the population and presents an opportunity for architecture to play a role in addressing problems experienced by students.
Endnotes
[1] Aiden, Hardeep. “Isolation and Loneliness an Overview of the Literature” (Brit- ish Red Cross, 2016), 6
[2] Perlman, Daniel and Letitia Anne Peplau. “Toward a Social Psychology of Lone- liness.” Personal Relationships in Disorder (1981), 31
[3] Griffin, Jo. “The Lonely Society”, Mental Health Foundation (2010), 3
[4] John T. Cacioppo & William Patrick. “Loneliness : Human Nature and the Need for Social Con- nection” (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008), 7
[5] Ibid
[6] Cornell University College of Human Ecology. “The Anatomy of Loneliness”, Cornell Cast (2010). https://www.cornell.edu/video/the-anatomy-of-loneliness
[7] Cacioppo et al. “Evolutionary Mechanisms for Loneliness”, National Institute of Health (2014), 1
[8] Bacon, Francis. “The Moral and Historical Works of Lord Bacon” (London: George Bells & Sons, 1882), 73–74
[9] Hammond, Claudia (host). “The Anatomy of Loneliness Episode 1”(BBC Sounds, 2018). https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m0000mj8
[10] Franiczek, Aleksander. “The Pleasurable Pain of Melancholic Solitude: Examining Rousseau’s Emotional Self-Indulgence in Reveries of the Solitary Walker” Undergraduate Awards (2017), 3
[11] Hammond, Claudia (host). “The Anatomy of Loneliness Episode 1”(BBC Sounds, 2018). https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m0000mj8
[12] Cacioppo, Stephanie, Angela J. Grippo, Sarah London, Luc Goos- sens, and John T. Cacioppo. “Loneliness: Clinical Import and Interventions.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10 (2) (2015), 239
[13] Ibid, 240
[14] Hall, Edward T. “The Hidden Dimension”. (Doubleday, Garden City, N. Y, 1966)
[15] Cacioppo, Stephanie, Angela J. Grippo, Sarah London, Luc Goos- sens, and John T. Cacioppo. “Loneliness: Clinical Import and Interventions.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 10 (2) (2015), 241
[16] Ibid
[17] Anderson, G. Oscar and Colette E. Thayer. “Loneliness and Social Connections” (AARP Foundation, Washington, DC: 2018), iv
[18] Holt-Lunstad, Julianne and Timothy B. Smith. “ Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review”, Perspectives on Psychological Science 10 (2015), 3
[19] Elmer, E.M.“Social isolation and loneliness among seniors in Vancouver: Strat- egies for reduction and prevention. A report to the City of Vancouver and Vancouver Coastal Health”. Vancouver, BC: City of Vancouver Seniors’ Advisory Committee (2018), 102
[20] In conversation with various housing coordinator staff at the University of Water- loo (2019)
[21] Rios, Paty et al. “Designed to Engage”. Happy City (2018)
[22] Brook McIlroy Planning + Urban Design/Pace Architects et al. “Avenues and Mid-rise Buildings Study”(2010)
[23] Neufert Foundation. “Architects Data Fourth Edition”. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Black- well, John Wiley & Sons (2012)
[24] Hammond, Claudia (host). “The Anatomy of Loneliness Episode 1”(BBC Sounds, 2018). https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m0000mj8
[25] Polack, Ellie. “New Cigna Study Reveals Loneliness at Epidemic Levels in Amer- ica”, Cigna.com (Accessed 2019) https://www.cigna.com/newsroom/news-releases/2018/ new-cigna-study-reveals-loneliness-at-epidemic-levels-in-america
[28] Tang et al. “Living Alone in Canada”. Insights on Canadian Society, Statistics Canada (2019), 1
[29] Ibid
[30] Klinenberg, Eric. “Social Isolation, Loneliness, and Living Alone: Identifying the Risks for Public Health.” American Journal of Public Health 106 (5) (2016), 786
[31] Ibid
[32] Weikle, Brandie. “More Canadians live alone than ever before: StatsCan report”. CBC News (2019) https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/canadians-living-alone-single-sta- tistics-canada-1.5045116
[33] Tan, Çetin, Mustafa Pamuk, and Ayşenur Dönder. “Lone- liness and Mobile Phone.” Procedia — Social and Behavioral Sciences 103 (2013), 607
[34] John T. Cacioppo & William Patrick. “Loneliness : Human Nature and the Need for Social Con- nection” (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008), 259
[35] Jing, Meng. “325 million lured by live streaming apps”, ChinaDaily.com (2016) http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/tech/2016-08/04/content_26336721.htm
[36] Wu, Hao (Producer and Director). “The People’s Republic of Desire” [documen- tary film]. (Russia, 2018)
[37] McCarthy, Amy. “This Korean Food Phenomenon is Changing the Internet” Eat- er.com (2017) https://www.eater.com/2017/4/19/15349568/mukbang-videos-korean-you- tube
[38] Savičić, Gordan, and Savić, Selena. Unpleasant Design. (Belgrade: G.L.O.R.I.A., 2013), 40
[39] Aked, Jody and Minton, Anna. ‘Fortress Britain’: high security, insecurity and the challenge of preventing harm. (New Economics Foundation, London, 2013), 1–13
[40] Todd, Douglas. “Douglas Todd: Why are Vancouver and Toronto so unhappy?” (Vancouver Sun, 2018) https://vancouversun.com/opinion/columnists/douglas-todd-why-are-vancouver-and-toronto- so-unhappy
[41] Putnam, Robert D. “Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community”.(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 230
[42] Kim, Eric. “This Solo Dining Trend is Changing the Way People Eat” (Food52. com, 2019) https://food52.com/blog/23699-honbap-solo-dining-table-for-one
[43] Ibid
[44] Ibid
[45] Wells, Pete. “Slurping Solo, in Sweet Isolation, at Ichiran in Brooklyn”. (New York Times, 2017) https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/17/dining/ichiran-review-ra- men-brooklyn.html
[46] Cheung, Rachel. “How Hong Kong’s hostile architecture hurts city’s homeless and poor”. (South China Morning Post, 2016) https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/article/2019619/how-hong-kongs-hostile-architecture- hurts-citys-homeless-and-poor
[47] Swain, Frank. “Secret City Design Tricks Manipulate Your Behavior”. (BBC, De- cember 2, 2013) http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20131202-dirty-tricks-of-city-design
[48] Gamman, Lorraine and Willcocks, Marcus. “The Anti-bag Theft and ASB-resis- tant ‘Camden Bench’”. (Design Against Crime Research Centre, London, 2011)
[49] Unpleasant Design Team. “Interview with Factory Furniture,” in Unpleasant Design (Belgrade: G.L.O.R.I.A., 2013), 155–157
[50] Savičić, Gordan, and Savić, Selena. “Unpleasant Design” (Belgrade: G.L.O.R.I.A., 2013), 49
[51] Ibid, 50
[52] Ibid, 51
[53] Statistics Canada, “Dwellings in Canada” Cencus 2016 (released May 2017) https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as- sa/98–200-x/2016005/98–200-x2016005-eng.cfm
[54] Syeda, Anika. “Vertical city: 80 new skyscrapers planned in Toronto as demand climbs” (Financial Post, 2019) https://business.finan- cialpost.com/real-estate/property-post/vertical-city-80-new-skyscrap- ers-planned-in-toronto-as-demand-climbs
[55] Gifford, Robert. “The Consequences of Living in High-Rise Buildings.” Architectural Science Review 50 (2007), 2–7
[56] Gehl, Jan. “Cities for People” (Washington D.C. Island Press: 2010), 40
[57] Interview with residents of a high-rise apartment building (Toronto, 2019)
[58] Putnam, Robert D. “Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Com- munity”.(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 545
[59] Kamin, B. “Terror and Wonder: Architecture in a Tumultuous Age”. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2010), 5
[60] Giroux, Henry A. and Susan Searls Giroux. “Challenging Neoliberalism’s New World Order: The Promise of Critical Pedagogy” in Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies, Vol. 6 Number 1 (Sage Publica- tions, 2006), 23
[61] Yang, Qingqing. “Space Modernization and Social Interaction: A Comparative Study of Living Space in Beijing.” (Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2015)
[62] Korzinski, Dave. “A Portrait of Social Isolation and Loneliness in Canada Today”. The Angus Reid Institute (2019), 1
[63] Ibid, 9
[64] Diehl, Katharina et al. “Loneliness at Universities: Determinants of Emotional and Social Loneliness among Students.” in International Journal of Environmental Re- search and Public Health 15 (9): 1865 (Published 2018), 1
[65] Gifford, Robert. “The Consequences of Living in High-Rise Buildings.” Architectural Science Review 50 (2007), p. 5
