Helping Multilingual Learners Develop Literacy and Language Proficiency
By Dr. Jana Echevarria
Multilingual learners, also referred to as English learners or emerging bilinguals, are the fastest-growing student population in our schools. Some states such as California and Texas have had large numbers of multilingual learners for decades but other states such as Kentucky, Mississippi, and South Carolina are experiencing a more recent influx of students. In fact, multilingual learners comprise approximately 10% of the school population nationwide, the majority of whom are native-born Americans.
These students are learning new literacy skills and grade-level content in a new language. That is a daunting situation. What can teachers do to help multilingual learners develop the language and literacy that will put them on an equal footing with their peers?
Recently, much attention has been given to how to best teach reading. The term “science of reading” (SOR) (Hanford, 2017), has become somewhat divisive in some circles. SOR might also be referred to as research on reading, or scientific evidence on how to learn to read. Whatever it is called, SOR refers to decades of research studies conducted in the U.S. and internationally that inform us about how individuals learn to read. Although studies have been conducted in multiple languages and with children who are learning the language of instruction, i.e., non-native speakers, much of what is currently being discussed doesn’t sufficiently address multilingual learners. That needs to change, especially since there are nearly 5 million multilingual students in our classrooms.
We know that there are many advantages to speaking two or more languages. Some of the cognitive benefits of being bilingual or multilingual include improved metalinguistic awareness and information processing (Marian & Shook, 2012). Practical benefits include a wider circle of social relationships, as well as better employment opportunities.
With regard to literacy, to date there has not been research that concludes that multilingual learners learn to read in significantly different ways than monolingual English-speaking students do. In an article on the topic, renowned cognitive neuropsychologist Kenneth Pugh is quoted:
“In my view, there is presently no evidence that how we teach reading should be in any way different based on brain differences between bilingual and monolingual learners…..cross-language brain research confirms that learning to read is based on cognitive universals, specifically, that phonological development makes possible binding letters and sounds to meaning, which is foundational for learning to read in any language.” (In Goldenberg, 2023)
Of course, science evolves as more studies are conducted, but presently the conclusion of research on how individuals learn to read, including multilingual learners, suggests that individuals universally require the same foundational skills.
Foundational skills include phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and oral language. To become skilled readers, multilingual learners, like all children, need to develop these various aspects of reading. However, for multilingual learners, teachers need to adjust their instruction so that the lesson’s content is understandable (Cardenas-Hagan, 2020; Echevarria, Vogt & Short, 2024; Ehri, et al., 2007; Vaughn, et al.2006). For example, you may be able to decode the word, efectivo, but if no meaning is attached, you aren’t really reading and cannot use the word in speaking and writing. (It means cash in Spanish). You might benefit from a visual, a translation of the word, or other scaffolds to help you understand the meaning of the word. The purpose of reading is to garner meaning, understanding, and new knowledge from what we can decode. During the literacy block, teachers capitalize on language learning opportunities.
Although foundational skills are language-based, multilingual learners need additional explicit instruction and opportunities to practice developing oral language in English. Oral language is the gateway to reading because if one doesn’t understand the meaning of the word, or have it as part of their lexical repertoire, they are merely word-calling without meaning.
English Language Development
In addition to foundational skills, research tells us that multilingual learners require a separate time each day to focus on advancing their English language proficiency. Typically called English language development (ELD), this protected time groups students of similar proficiency levels together to learn and practice how English works. ELD activities are designed to help individuals develop their English language abilities, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. These activities focus on building vocabulary, improving grammar and sentence structure, enhancing comprehension, and fostering effective communication in English. There is significant attention to providing opportunities for students to practice speaking the language.
The importance of focused, effective ELD is indisputable. Research shows that the earlier multilingual learners became English proficient, the narrower the gap between them and their English-speaking peers in English language arts (ELA) and math achievement through 8th grade (Halle, et al., 2012). Further, in a review of research on the science of reading, Goldenberg (2020) concluded that if multilingual learners become more proficient in English, they will become more efficient readers as well.
Recognizing the importance of students’ home languages and promoting English proficiency can go hand in hand. A productive approach to language development involves establishing connections between the home language and English. One effective strategy is to exhibit and explore a chart of cognates, highlighting the similarities between Latin-based words such as combinación and combination. Similarly, sharing and discussing a chart of affixes can illustrate the tremendous capacity for word acquisition by understanding common prefixes and suffixes. Many of these affixes are identical or similar in both English and Spanish. As students deepen their understanding of language and cultivate word consciousness, their proficiency will naturally improve in both languages.
Using text from the core curriculum is most effective and an efficient use of time because ELD time then reinforces concepts covered during ELA and uses the same vocabulary that students will encounter in the text. It provides a “double dose” of exposure to and practice with grade-level text that is filled with unfamiliar words, syntax, and grammar.
Integrating Literacy and Content Learning
Finally, teachers need to build and broaden content knowledge for multilingual learners — and all students. Integrating literacy with science and social studies subjects can be an effective approach to enhancing content knowledge, comprehension, and vocabulary development (Hwang, Cabell & Joyner, 2021). However, many multilingual learners face the challenge of limited exposure to various science and social studies topics found in American texts. Additionally, the academic language used in texts, such as subject-specific terms, complex sentence structures, and rhetorical conventions, poses particular difficulties for multilingual learners who are still working on achieving proficiency in oral language. Again, adjustments need to be made to make content comprehensible for multilingual learners (Echevarria, Vogt & Short, 2024).
In summary, it is essential for educators to foster an environment that values multilingual learners, where teachers hold high standards for their academic growth, embrace their diverse language and cultural backgrounds as valuable contributions in the classroom, and provide abundant language and literacy learning opportunities in their lessons.
For more on supporting multilingual learners, see:
Jana Echevarria, Professor Emerita at California State University, Long Beach, has published widely on effective instruction for English Learners, including those with learning disabilities. She has presented her research in the U.S. and internationally, including at Oxford University (England), Wits University (South Africa), Harvard University (U.S.), Stanford University (U.S.), University of Barcelona (Spain), and South East Europe University (Macedonia) where she was a Fulbright Senior Specialist.
Prior to receiving her Ph.D. from UCLA, she taught in elementary, middle, and high school in general education, special education, ESL, and bilingual programs.
Dr. Echevarria is co-developer of the SIOP Model (Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol) and co-author on the SIOP Model book series. The SIOP model of instruction is used widely in all 50 states and numerous countries.
Dr. Echevarria’s proudest contributions to the Science of Reading are thirty years of helping multilingual learners access texts through SIOP and popularizing the practice of having a language objective in every lesson so that language learning is transparent.
References
Cardenas-Hagan, E. (2020) Literacy Foundations for English Learners: A Comprehensive Guide to Evidence-Based Instruction. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E., Short, D.& Toppel, K. (2024). Making Content Comprehensible for Multilingual Learners: The SIOP® Model, Sixth Edition. Boston: Pearson.
Ehri, L.C., Dreyer, L.G., Flugman, B., & Gross, A. (2007). Reading Res- cue: An effective tutoring intervention model for language-minority students who are struggling readers in first grade. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 414–448.
Goldenberg, C. (2023). The “bilingual brain” and reading research: Questions about teaching English Learners to read in English. Colorín Colorado, https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/bilingual-brain-and-reading-research-questions-about-teaching-english-learners-read-english.
Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading science, reading wars, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, Special Issue: The Science of Reading: Supports, Critiques, and Questions, 55, S1, 131–144.
Halle, T., Hair, E., Wandner, L., McNamara, M., & Chien, N. (2012). Predictors and outcomes of early versus later English language proficiency among English language learners. Early Child Research Quarterly. 27, 1, 1–20.
Hwang, H., Cabell, S. Q., & Joyner, R. E. (2022). Effects of integrated literacy and content-area instruction on vocabulary and comprehension in the elementary years: A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(3), 223–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2021.1954005
Marian, V. & Shook, A. (2012). The cognitive benefits of being bilingual. Cerebrum, 13.
Vaughn, S., Mathes, P., Linan- Thompson, S., Cirino, P., Carlson, C., Pollard-Durodola, S., Cárdenas-Hagan, E., Francis, D. (2006a). Effectiveness of an English intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading problems. The Elementary School Journal, 107(2), 153–180.
