Yoga Practices in Hinduism
…and their relationship to meditation
Yoga is a set of ancient spiritual practices that originated in India, where it remains a strong tradition and is seen as a tool to achieve liberation to this day, in particular in Hinduism. Yoga is first mentioned in many direct and indirect references in the Upanishads between the fifth and third century BCE. In the early Vedic religion, yoga mainly emphasised performing rituals and ceremonies to obtain the favour of the gods. Over time, however, as the concept of liberation or moksha became more rooted in ancient Indian Hinduism, yoga gradually shifted from a focus on purely outward rituals to engagement with inner spiritual practices. In fact, this shift is evident in the Mundaka Upanishad, which states that ‘sacrifices are inferior, and unsteady are the boats of those who perform them’, hence if reaching liberation is the goal, the practitioner’s focus should not be solely on rituals. Interestingly though, formal rituals of yoga have been retained alongside the inner spiritual focus over the years.
The classical system of yoga as described in the Vedic tradition is called ashtanga yoga and was conceived by the ancient sage, Patanjali. It is considered the eightfold yoga system because of its eight limbs or progressive steps, which are called yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Specifically, yama means abstaining from violence, lying, theft, (illicit) sex, and possessions, i.e. having ethical discipline; niyama means adhering to rules and observing purity, contentment, austerities, study and surrendering to God; asana refers to the physical positions or postures to be used in yoga practice; pranayama means control of the breath; pratyahara means withdrawal from the senses; dharana means concentration or one-pointedness of mind; dhyana means meditation; and samadhi is a highly conscious state or trance, a state of liberation. We can thus consider yoga an almost scientific, psychic method to gradually raise the practitioner’s consciousness to a higher level of awareness until samadhi is achieved, which is the stage where the self realises its own true nature, thus leaving the mortal body behind and entering the coveted liberated state, moksha.
In simpler terms, yoga is defined as a ritual practice to achieve an ongoing control of the senses and ceasing of mental activity, leading to the supreme state in the sense of inner concentration. Unlike the Early Buddhist meditation practices, attaining the state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquillity through yoga and meditation in Hinduism involves physical, mental and spiritual components. In fact, the importance of yoga for physical, mental and spiritual well-being is today recognised in most countries and cultures all over the world. However, it is important to note that yoga is not merely a spiritual practice alone but also a formal Hindu ritual.
The ultimate goal of yoga in Hinduism is to enable the ego to be able to be transcended and realise that the true self (atman) is Brahman (the universal soul), which leads to moksha, i.e. the liberation from worldly suffering and the eternal cycle of rebirth (samsara). Unlike other major religions such as Christianity, the ultimate goal is not to reach eternal life but to obtain the ultimate insight that atman is Brahman and therefore discover the true self, which leads to liberation.
The basic teaching of yoga practice in Hinduism was contained in the Yoga Sutras, compiled by Patanjali. The Yoga Sutras are the most commonly cited text on yoga nowadays and date back to between 200 BCE — 200 CE. These texts define yoga as follows in the second sutra: ‘Yoga is the stilling of the fluctuations of the mind — Yoga Sutras 1.2’. Patanjali’s most important contribution was that he developed the practical components of yoga and elaborated both the theoretical and practical aspects of yoga, thus making yoga ‘a practical science of body and mind, a metapsychology along with metaphysics, and identified various physical positions, exercises and moves and mental modes which today constitute the diverse forms of yoga.’ These tools, according to Patanjali, constitute the eight stages of yoga that lead the practitioner towards the attainment of moksha.
Specifically, ‘Patanjali states that yoga is the ending (nirodha) of the whirling (vrtti) of thought (citta)’, and that by bringing the activities of our mind, i.e. thought or citta, to a halt, moksha is achieved, which is of course the ultimate goal of yoga practice in Hinduism.
Yoga as defined by Patanjal is essentially non-theistic. The aforementioned eight limbs of yoga he defined, known as Ashtanga Yoga (asht — eight; anga — limb), are ethical discipline, rules, physical postures, breath control, withdrawal from the senses, one-pointedness of mind, meditation and samadhi. An important aspect here is breath control which the Upanishads clearly recognise as a superior practice because breath was considered ‘the lord of the body’. Breath is necessary to keep the body alive, and by regulating the breath in the body, practitioners can control their mind, body and senses. It can be assumed that this idea is the origin of the strong emphasis in yoga on the practice of pranayama before beginning meditation and concentration.
Importantly, this is followed by samadhi, a state of concentrated meditation which results in the union of the individual self (atman) with the universal soul (Brahman). This is meant to discipline the mind and stop it from being controlled by the sense and sensual pleasure, which is the ultimate goal of all Hindu yogis and the purpose of practicing yoga. This is further evidence that yoga is not just meditation but also a formal practise that has a set of different requirements that need to be followed.
The origin of the word yoga lies in the Sanskrit root yuj, which means ‘to yoke’ or ‘ to join’. It follows that ‘yoga is the science that yokes “the finite” with “the Infinite”, or “the finite spirit” with “the Supreme Spirit”.’ In most Hindu texts, yoga is referred to as a practice to control the senses and consequently the mind. One of the most important Hindu scripture is the Bhagavad Gita, which dates back to 6th to 3rd Century BCE. In this text, Krishna mentions four types of yoga as paths to achieving liberation or moksha, the ultimate goal according to the Hindu belief system. These four types are ‘bhakti, or devotion; jnana, or knowledge; karma, or action; and dhyana, or concentration (often referred to as raja yoga)’. However, the Bhagavad Gita stresses that no matter which path a practitioner chooses, yoga is always an individual journey which requires lifelong dedication on the part of the practitioner. In Yoga Sutra 1.12, Patanjali also emphasises the importance of consistent practice or abhyasa.
What is especially notable is that all chapters of the Bhagavad Gita mention the word ‘yoga’, which is clear evidence of the importance of yoga in Hinduism and in working towards achieving liberation. Yoga is described as a multidisciplinary tool that is very useful for purifying the mind as well as body and gaining control over one’s mind and emotions. Furthermore, yoga is considered the most popular tool for self-transformation and physical well-being and is effective for both worldly individuals looking for mental peace and ascetics striving for liberation in equal measure. Ultimately, yoga helps practitioners to become better human beings and better devotees.
Importantly, further references to yoga are found in many Hindu scriptures throughout the years. For example, the Katha Upanishad, which dates back to 800–600 BCE, states: ‘The firm control of the senses, they regard as Yoga. — Katha Upanishad 2.3.1.’ We can posit that, in Hinduism, yoga comprises a definite metaphysical component and is considered an independent philosophy’. In fact, Patanjali was the first to classify yoga into a body of philosophy whilst also assimilating elements of both Jainism and Buddhism.
Today, on the other hand, yoga is widely misinterpreted as primarily a physical activity focusing on the different postures or asana. While practicing yoga for health reasons and to improve one’s physical condition is acceptable, it is not the ultimate goal of yoga or the purpose for practicing it in Hinduism. A development in the Western world, above all, is the transformation of yoga from an inner spiritual journey to a commercialised multi-million dollar industry, which is troubling to Hindus who see it as yoga being severed from its roots. After all, for Hindus, ‘yoga is a spiritual discipline rooted in Hindu philosophy and is universally available to anyone.’
We can go as far as speaking of a conflict between East and West or a modern versus a traditional interpretation when it comes to yoga today. Whereas modern yoga is a popular practice that transcends cultures as well as national borders, in Hinduism, older and more traditional forms of yoga have persisted to the present day. But, as Long (2014) notes, a Modern Hinduism has also emerged, which like the Modern Yoga in the West, is characterised by an innovative approach to the traditional Hindu systems of thought and practice. However, even the modern versions of yoga are still connected to Hinduism. The Indian masters who first introduced yoga to the Western world did so as part of the Hindu identity and worldview, so we cannot distinguish between yoga and Hinduism as separate concepts.
Ultimately, we still have to acknowledge ‘the Hindu provenance of much of the conceptual and practical content of the various yoga traditions’. This leads to some tension between Indian Hindus and the West today because there are those proponents who believe that yoga and Hinduism are the cultural property of Indian Hindus, on the one hand, and those yoga practitioners, in particular in the West, who consider either yoga or Hinduism as being universally relevant and not confined to their Indian roots. Non-Indian practitioners who see yoga’s primary purpose as a secular, physical or therapeutic one unrelated to its origins are likely to be thought by some Indian Hindus to be purporting intellectual dishonesty.
In conclusion, yoga is one of the oldest and most traditional spiritual concepts of Hinduism rather than a set of doctrines or theories. Fundamentally, yoga is a collection of simple practices and rituals, consisting of actions, methods and techniques, whereby physical practices are combined with spiritual ones. The eight limbs of yoga relate to meditation in that certain postures are assumed such as cross-legged sitting as known from meditation, breath control is practiced, senses are withdrawn from objects, and the mind is stilled. Meditation is also explicitly mentioned as one of the eight limbs of Patanjali’s path, culminating in samadhi, the peak state of meditation, leading to moksha. Despite the emergence of modern interpretations of yoga, which are more focused on the physical aspects, yoga practice remains a traditionally Hindu practice with the ultimate goal of attaining liberation.
Sources:Anon. ‘Question Eleven: Is Yoga a Hindu Practice?’, Hinduism Today, n.d, https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5673Hindu American Foundation. ‘The Hindu Roots of Yoga and the Take Back Yoga Campaign’, n.d., https://www.hinduamerican.org/projects/hindu-roots-of-yogaHindu Human Rights. ‘What Does Yoga Have to Do with Hinduism?’, 2018, https://hinducouncil.com.au/new/what-does-yoga-have-to-do-with-hinduism/Jain, Pankaj C. The Philosophy of Yoga – An Aesthetic Appraisal, 2002, https://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/yogaJayaram V. The History of Yoga, References in the Upanishads, n.d.,https://www.hinduwebsite.com/upanishads/essays/history-of-yoga-references-in-the-upanishads.aspJayaram V. The Meaning and Purpose of Yoga, n.d., https://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/yoga.aspLong, Jeffery D. ‘The Transformation of Yoga and Hinduism: Negotiating Authenticity, Innovation, and Identity in a Global Context’Ridgeon, Lloyd. Major World Religions: From Their Origins To Their PresentRodrigues, Hillary. Introducing Hinduism
