How Trauma among Adolescent Refugees Affects Building Communities During Times of Social Unrest
By Bethany Patterson
Introductory Note:
It is estimated that children below the age of 18 make up 50% of the refugee population worldwide (UNHCR Data). It has also been noted that “An estimated 300,000 children under 18 years of age have fought in armed conflicts around the world” (Child Soldiers, 2001). Upon the arrival of adolescent refugees to their resettlement country, many have experienced violence from war, the loss of a family member, and social and religious rejection. “In numerous studies, post-migration stressors have accounted for greater variance in levels of depression and anxiety than war-related experiences of trauma and loss” (Miller, 2000.) The way trauma impacts an individual varies based on many factors, including their predisposition, experienced traumas, and experiences during resettlement. “Trauma is not a disorder but a reaction to a kind of wound. It is a reaction to profoundly injurious events and situations in the real world and, indeed, to a world in which people are routinely wounded” (Sullivan, 2006.)
Over 15 weeks, I have worked on a literature review that reflects the correlation of trauma among adolescent refugees. The literature review illustrates the direct correlation that chronic stress, social support, and substance abuse have on the trauma of adolescents, whether they help to increase or decrease an adolescent’s trauma. The mental health of both documented and undocumented adolescent refugees will continue to be relevant in the twenty-first century during times of social unrest. This topic was presented to me by Dr. Dan Nyaronga, who is associated with the Buffalo Project and has focused his career on helping traumatized adolescents. Although this is a continued study, it has been brought to my attention that with the stigma of mental health in the United States, topics as important as the trauma of adolescent refugees are often pushed aside. I have been able to show how social support will help decrease the trauma among adolescent refugees and allow them to successfully participate in everyday life. Studies have shown that when refugees can work through their traumas, they offer great success to communities. For example, Buffalo, “The City of Good Neighbors,” has demonstrated the cultural awareness and cultural growth refugees bring to the city. Neighborhoods that were once filled with poverty have become economic success stories due to the economic contributions refugees make to their community. In addition to Buffalo, cities such as Detroit, Michigan openly welcome refugees to their cities to lead by example that during times of social unrest, there is more of a reason to open our doors and refugees have significantly contributed to the black holes of economic despair.
Through my experience with the Rockefeller Institute as a Center for Law and Policy Solutions intern, I have been able to research the positive effects social support has on adolescent refugees. “There is a need for increased awareness, training, and funding to implement longitudinal interventions that work collaboratively with clients from refugee backgrounds through the stages of resettlement (Murray, Davidson & Schweitzer, 2010). Although I am adding to the academic conversation, the continued funding for mental health among adolescent refugees is essential for them to assimilate into their new communities during times of social unrest which could add more stress. A leading researcher and professor who is paving the way to continue to enhance the social support adolescent refugees get is Dr. Patricia Shannon. She “[h]as been working to develop a new set of measures that can help health-care providers accurately determine whether refugees suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder or depression. These culturally specific tools can help direct people to the help they need. And the sooner mental health concerns are identified and treated, the better the prospects for a refugee’s long-term success in the adopted country” (Steiner, 2016). The emphasis on these screenings is significant because it is a still new area of research and will allow schools to continue to give adolescent refugees the social support they deserve.
Summary:
The correlation of trauma among adolescent refugees is crucial to the social and intellectual development of newly arrived refugees coming into countries where social unrest prevails. The focus of the literature review revolved around the positive impact of social support on an adolescent refugee’s mental health and confidence. On the other hand, if adolescent refugees do not have adequate social support from chronic stress, they may turn to substance abuse to cope with their trauma. This was also focused on the literature review. Addressing the emotional needs to be the priority. The reason behind this is because Buffalo, New York requires that a refugee find a job within three months of arriving and that children be sent to school within three months. Studies have shown that “[m]ore than 40% [of refugees] are children, many of whom have experienced profound loss and survived devastating events that can impact their development and long-term functioning” (APA Task Force, 2009.)
With the increasing political unrest, especially in the United States, adolescent refugees are finding themselves at an extreme crossroads adapting to their new post-settlement surroundings while dealing with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD.) The way trauma impacts an individual varies based on many factors including their predisposition, experienced traumas, and experiences during resettlement. “The field is only beginning to understand the full impact of armed conflict, displacement, and resettlement on children’s development and overall well-being, however, the present literature indicates promising initiatives in individual treatment methods, family therapy, and group work in schools and other community settings” (APA Task Force, 2009). Adolescent refugees often flee their countries during what can be a crucial time in their life. Self-esteem is a crucial indicator in regards to the correlation of mental health in adolescent refugees. “As young adolescents mature, they begin to develop a sense of cultural and social identity as well as a sense of personal identity and self-esteem” (Allen, 2004.) Adolescents are already struggling with their identity in their native homelands. The complications of linguistics, discrimination, bullying, cultural adjustments, and having role reversals by becoming the caretakers because their parents cannot speak the language, adds a continuation of stress on already traumatized adolescent refugees. “Once refugees resettle in a host country, new belief systems, values, and morals challenge their adjustment” (Papadopoulos, 2001). Studies have highlighted that preexisting psychological disorders, trauma and ongoing stress, trauma, and social support, and trauma and adolescents’ alcohol and drug use, all relate to how successful an adolescent refugee will be in their new surroundings. The correlation of trauma among adolescent refugees is crucial to the social and intellectual development of newly arrived refugees coming into countries where social unrest prevails. “Psychologists in their roles as clinicians, researchers, educators, and advocates can be important resources in the lives of these refugee children and their families and can work to enhance society’s understanding of their experiences and needs” (APA Task Force, 2009.)
Finally, the rehabilitation of adolescent refugees receiving the mental health support they need to address their trauma can help break down mental health stigmas and stereotypes. An increase in multi-cultural health screenings and services provided by psychologists can be an example of how successful adolescent refugees can be in their new communities. “Community psychologists with expertise in creating services for vulnerable populations not typically served in mental health settings may be particularly able to assist in needs assessment and development of community-based interventions for refugee families” (APA Task Force, 2009). Also, the prioritization of mental health among adolescent refugees can be an example of the importance of mental health among non-marginalized communities.
Literature Review:
Attached is the literature review I have worked on during the spring 2020 internship under the direction of Dr. Dan Nyaronga.
Abstract:
Although there is a growing body of research highlighting immigrant youth’s unique lived experiences (e.g., Curran, Shafer, Donato, & Garip, 2006; Hondagneu-Sotelo, 1995; Sano, Garasky, Greder, Cook, & Browder, 2011), less is known about refugee and undocumented immigrants, who are particularly vulnerable to trauma because of their age or marginalized social positioning. Trauma exposures for refugees may be linked to persecution and violence that cause them to flee their home countries (Martin & Yankay, 2014), whereas undocumented immigrants may encounter assault and life-threatening conditions during the migration journey (Vogt, 2013). Once settled in the United States, immigrant youth often endure myriad stressors (e.g., anti-immigrant environment, family separation) that can exacerbate previous trauma, often without much support (Chung, Bemak, Ortiz, & Sandoval-Perez, 2008; Menjívar & Abrego, 2012). In this study, we examined correlates of trauma among refugees and immigrants and how refugee and immigrant (documented and undocumented) youth experience trauma and stress in context, and how they develop coping and resilience.
Keywords: correlates, trauma, refugees, immigrants,
Introduction
Studies indicate that 50% of refugees worldwide are below 18 years of age (UNHCR Data). Refugees face numerous mental health challenges including trauma. The complications due to discrimination, bullying, cultural adjustments, and having role reversals by becoming caretakers because their parents cannot speak the language adds a continuation of stress on the already traumatized adolescent refugees.
Trauma has often been conceptualized through the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) (American Psychiatric Association 2013): its definition of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) focuses on traumatic experiences that involve actual or threatened death or injury, or witnessing such events. However, scholars have advocated for an understanding of traumatic experiences that is ecosystemic, which would enable researchers and counselors to identify and address the complex sources of trauma that may not fall within the DSM-5 definition (e.g., Burstow, 2003; Danieli, 2007; Goodman, 2013; Kira, 2010). In this article, our conceptualization of trauma is informed by Burstow’s (2003) definition: “Trauma is not a disorder but a reaction to a kind of wound. It is a reaction to profoundly injurious events and situations in the real world and, indeed, to a world in which people are routinely wounded” (p. 1302). Complex trauma connotes traumas that occur repeatedly, such as sexual abuse trauma (Herman, 1997). Trauma can arise from experiences of discrimination or systemic oppression, such as racism (Carter, 2007; Goodman & West-Olatunji, 2010). Trauma can also be transmitted across generations, which scholars have described as intergenerational, transgenerational, or historical trauma (Danieli, 2007; Duran, Firehammer, & Gonzalez, 2008; Goodman & West-Olatunji, 2008). As Kira (2010) noted in his cumulative trauma framework, single-incident models do not account for the complex and layered experiences of trauma, particularly when working with marginalized populations who might experience intergenerational traumas that are socially made, such as poverty, discrimination, caste systems, and other social and cultural conditions. Therefore, our understanding of trauma includes the multiple ways in which individuals experience trauma, including single-incident trauma, complex trauma, and cumulative trauma (Kira et al., 2008). For refugee and undocumented immigrant youth, an ecosystemic framework inclusive of multiple and systemic sources of trauma is needed to understand their multifaceted traumatic experiences that can occur before, during, or after migration, and which contribute to potentially disparate mental health outcomes (Goodman, Vesely, Letiecq, & Cleaveland (2017).
This study investigates the correlates of mental health, specifically refugees and immigrants’ traumatic experiences about ongoing chronic stressors, adolescent alcohol and drug use, resilience, social support, religiosity, age, level of education, race, gender identity, and time lived in the United States.
Trauma and ongoing chronic Stress
Refugee and immigrant (documented and undocumented) youth are likely to face ongoing structural and situational stressors that may further complicate and challenge coping and increase their vulnerability to poor mental health (Letiecq, Grzywacz, Gray, & Eudave, 2014). Structural stressors include poverty (Fortuny, Hernandez, & Chaudry, 2010; Kent, 2007), language barriers (Perreira et al., 2012), difficulty accessing resources (Sano et al., 2011; Yoshikawa, Godfrey, & Rivera, 2008), and difficulty obtaining employment (Chung et al., 2008; Wight, Thampi, & Chau, 2011). Displacement-related stressors (Miller & Rasmussen, 2016) or family separation is another structural stressor because it can take years for families to reunite — and some may never reunite — given the dangers back home, tightening of border security, and government backlogs in processing immigration cases (Letiecq et al., 2014). Situational stressors, which are more labile, include perceptions of discrimination and an anti-immigrant climate, worries about family welfare, and limited social supports (Grzywacz et al., 2010). Such exposures may have a kindling effect, in which individuals with previous trauma and stress experiences may suffer increased negative effects from future exposures (Schumm, Stines, Hobfoll, & Jackson, 2005). As noted in the extant research, the question of how traumatic experiences and stressors are interpreted and integrated by survivors is pivotal for effective interventions that can improve coping and resilience (Marshall, Schell, & Niles, 2009; Norris, Perilla, Ibañez, & Murphy, 2001).
Trauma and Social Support
Being an adolescent is a crucial period in anyone’s life, but adding the prior trauma experienced, it is even more crucial that adolescent refugees receive social support at school. Several studies conducted on adolescents indicate that social support is an important resource that has a protective effect against stress” (Garmezy, 1983; Goodkind, 2013 Sandler, Miller, Short & Wolchik, 1989; Werner & Smith, 1982). That is, social support can help decrease the effects of trauma among immigrants and refugee youth. Social support is, “the positive regard received from others” (Harter, 1985). Immigrants and refugee youth may face a sense of cultural bereavement or uprooting with a sense of a loss of cultural identity (Eisenbruch, 1988.) Schools can take a lead as key socialization and acculturation agencies (Hones & Cha. 1999; Trueba, Jacobs, & Kirton, 1990) to provide social support. Family, school, and co-workers play a greater role for refugees to succeed. Students’ perception of acceptance in school is a major factor in their overall adjustment to a new environment” (Nguyen &Henkin, 1980.) An example of how teachers can aid in offering social support is incorporating multicultural literature in their curriculum. Through the use of good multicultural literature in schools, educators can help break down barriers and can make a difference in dispelling prejudice and building community. Also, students can bring their cultural differences along with their cognitive differences (Al-Hazza& Bucher, 2010).
Trauma and Adolescents’ Alcohol and Drug use:
Studies indicate that stressors place refugees at an increased risk for mental health problems, which in turn increases the risk for substance misuse (Teesson & Proudfoot, 2003). Prior trauma experienced and the post resettlement triggers are the fuel to find a quick fix to “numb” the trauma affecting their mental health, which leads to an increased concern for potential abuse of alcohol and drugs (Sowey, 2005). Every refugee’s prior trauma before resettlement and the support they receive assimilating to their new country are all vital factors of whether they will turn to alcohol or drugs. There is often a time-lag of 5 to 10 years before any substance abuse emerges. Similarly, Yee & Thu (1987) comment that refugees’ initial adjustment period (of months to several years) is spent simply surviving, and that substance use disorders do not tend to arise until after this time, when basic survival needs have been met and issues of acculturation become overwhelming (Sowey, 2005). Adolescent refugees who are more acculturated in their new culture are more likely to try an illegal substance because they feel pressured to accept mainstream norms. In western cultures, alcohol use has become normalized and hard to avoid. This pressure may be unavoidable for an adolescent refugee who so desperately needs and wants social support from their peers, but does not want to compromise their own cultural beliefs. Economic disparity, social discrimination, and marginalization of refugees, in western countries, are the main reasons adolescents abuse alcohol and drugs. There was a systematic review that examined the relationship between racial discrimination on children’s health. Of those surveyed, 60% used alcohol and 49% used drugs (Horyniak, 2016).
Although the use of alcohol and drugs may be a temporary way of numbing the pain, it can be concluded this increases the level of trauma experienced within adolescent refugees. With the unprecedented amount of refugees coming to western countries, there are no positive health benefits when alcohol and illegal drugs are used. The over usage of the two can lead to domestic violence within the home, mental health disorders, and the contraction of infectious diseases such as HIV. “The negative consequences of substance use may also be exacerbated among forced migrant populations due to poor knowledge about substance use, stigma, and reduced access to health services” (Horyniak, 2016.)
Timeline to Completion:
This micro-study has an end date of around mid-April 2020 which is around the same time the Rockefeller internship will be completed. Once the internship is done, I plan on continuing my literature review under the direction of Dr. Dan Nyaronga and continuing with the Buffalo Project as well. I feel as if the importance of focusing on the traumas of adolescent refugees is crucial more so than ever with the current Covid-19 pandemic and the current halt on immigration from the Trump Administration.
Micro-Study Milestones:
Social Support for adolescent refugees
The mental health of adolescent refugees is a significant topic of concern. The continued research is crucial to help adolescent refugees assimilate to new multicultural societies. Using my research regarding the success of social support can offer adolescent refugees hope. One significant milestone I came across was, “Canadian researchers and administrators think it is better to hold off mental evaluations and placement tests in adolescents’ new schools because they have not had the opportunity to adapt fully to their new culture” (Guruge and Butt, 2015). Adolescents struggle enough to adapt to new surroundings and allowing them to assimilate to their new culture first may allow them to feel more at ease. “In particular, migration to distant and culturally different environments often introduces stressors that fragment and can destabilize the nuclear family” (Hao & Johnson, 2000: Malone & Dooley, 2006).
Ethno-Graphic Interview:
Interviewing an expert gives us as Rockefeller interns a more in-depth one-on-one understanding of the material we have been researching. Dr. Nyaronga is an associate professor of Psychology at SUNY Empire State College. Dr. Nyaronga has an extensive background with hands-on experience working with refugees, specifically from Africa. Dr. Nyaronga’s work began in 2007 working in the San Francisco Bay area. Aside from translating, Dr. Nyaronga has gone above and beyond to understand what it is like for a refugee the moment they arrive in Buffalo. Dr. Nyaronga has guided me in the direction of my micro-study by suggesting topics such as how social support, chronically stressful environments, resiliency, religiosity, and education impact a refugee’s ability to cope with traumas. Dr. Nyaronga’s expertise is in refugee populations and psychology. He noted that refugees are lacking the emotional support that is needed. Dr. Nyaronga used Buffalo, NY as an example. The moment a refugee lands at the Buffalo Airport, they have three months to find employment, housing, a cell phone, and become culturally assimilated to their new surroundings. The refugee process is focused on the necessities, not the emotional needs. It is imperative that new measures be developed to address not only their basic needs but the emotional consequences of exposure to traumas. Refugees have proven resilient, securing jobs and housing, despite limited access to beneficial mental health supports; however, the literature is clear that unaddressed traumas result in serious mental and physical consequences including a significantly reduced lifespan. During the interview, Dr. Nyaronga mentioned the difficulty he has had having questions approved that he wants to ask the refugees because experts think he could potentially be a trigger. Though experts appear to approach this population with caution, resources for needs identification and service provision must be secured and implemented with urgency.
Project Risks:
The topic of the correlation of trauma among adolescent refugees had a few risks. One primary concern was the risk of missing an important part of the literature on this topic. Entering an academic conversation can be challenging because I did not want to miss a crucial expert’s opinion or research when researching trauma. One particularly important issue in the literature review is mental health test screenings. The major question is should refugees be screened for traumas immediately upon arrival to their new country or after they have had time to culturally assimilate. This is a topic still being debated today, but once the results have been concluded, it is up to states to provide additional funding for these refugees to receive actually. For instance, during the Ethnographic interview with Dr. Nyaronga, (referenced above) refugees have three months to be culturally assimilated and working. “Rates of mental health disorders, such as anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression were higher among refugee populations in comparison to the general population” (Hameed, 2018). Three months is not a sufficient amount of time to address mental health problems and become culturally assimilated. Tensions and negative attitudes toward immigrants in the United States likely exacerbate the mental health needs of refugees.
Relating to the theme of the Rockefeller Institute of Government internship, “Building Community in times of Social Unrest,” Slate chief political correspondent Jamelle Bouie finds that, “if our history shows anything, it’s this: The United States is a nation that fears immigrants and refugees as much as it’s a nation of immigrants and refugees” (Bouie, 2017). When we assume, we simply make judgments based on someone else’s experience. If given the opportunity, simply asking someone about their culture is the first step to being culturally competent. Thus, highlighting the importance of the continued research of the prevalence of trauma among adolescent refugees.
Covid-19 and Social Unrest:
The prevalence of trauma among adolescent refugees is essential, particularly during this unprecedented period in US history. The unforeseen circumstances of Covid-19 have only added tensions and uncertainty in regards to trying to build a community in times of social unrest. Covid-19 has put almost an entire halt on asylum-seeking applications. “At least 173 other countries, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), had implemented travel bans, border closures, and other mobility restrictions of their own” (Chishti and Pierce, 2020). Refugees are now not only trapped in a dangerous country that they are trying to escape, but the ones who are already in the United States are under a great deal of stress. “An order temporarily barring the entry of asylum seekers and others arriving at the border without prior authorization to enter.” (Chishti and Pierce, 2020) Among the disadvantaged economic citizens already present in the United States, refugees already present are finding themselves in close living quarters at risk of spreading the virus even more. Although experts may disagree, the priority of the acceptable social distancing for refugees needs to be number one. Many of these asylum-seeking refugees are displaced in refugee camps that were cited as being a “Death sentence,” for the spread of Covid-19 according to Syrian activist Leena Zahia.
The latest update on the impact of the Covid-19 virus is Trump is hoping to temporarily suspend immigration with an executive order. The white house secretary, Kayleigh McEnany, said, “Trump is committed to protecting the health and economic well-being of American citizens as we face unprecedented times” (Calamur, 2020). More so than ever the importance of building community in times of social unrest must take precedence over anything else. During the impact of the Covid-19 virus, refugees have been left to feel hopeless. Feelings of hopelessness may only add to their existing trauma.
Takeaways:
The theme of this internship, “Building Communities during times of Social Unrest,” has allowed for the direction of the classroom discussions to be focused on learning skills to be culturally competent. The selection of blog posts, journal entries, and case studies provided to us by Dr. Rogers ranged from learning about our own biases, social unrest around the globe, and learning how to be culturally competent in a changing world. Access to these articles was available on the WIX website, where the interns and I engaged in thoughtful discussions. The WIX website has highlighted articles about understanding privilege, the unintentional and intentional discrimination of minorities, global dexterity, and cultural competency. The most recent and engaging conversation surrounded an article titled, “Explaining Privilege to a Broke White Person.” This article sparked such interest because the sole focus of the internship is to ensure we become culturally competent and this article ensured we had the confidence for any situation. Twice a week there are one-hour Zoom meetings. Instead of a classic learning environment of deciphering through a textbook and summarizing what we have learned, we are challenged by Dr. Rogers and are given the ability to apply what we have learned about cultural competency to our communities. The virtual residency was accessible through Moodle. The virtual residency allowed students to speak with international students from countries such as Lebanon and the Dominican Republic. Already having a great deal of knowledge about cultural competency because it was the main focus of the first part of the internship, it was here in Module, cross-cultural conversations occurred. The various forms of technology we have had access to during the duration of the internship have highlighted how technology can lessen the tension and further expand communities.
Building community in times of social unrest comes with considerable challenges, but reaping the benefits is longer lasting in communities. The media during this climatic time of social unrest, often depicts refugees crossing borders illegally, spreading Islamic or other ideologies that will corrupt the “peace” and the fear of the unknown is what often drives societies to forget the cultural diversity to communities, the potential economic changes, and the influx of different languages. Highlighting the importance of multiculturalism is key to building communities during times of social unrest. Instead of allowing fear to dictate how marginalized communities will adapt to societal changes, focusing on what these communities may offer may have the potential to lessen the tensions. To compete with the negative media, the importance of schools and universities incorporating cultural competencies in their curriculum will allow for discussions to lessen the tension. This will allow for the successful integration of adolescent refugees into new schools and I hope the importance of the topic of correlation of adolescent refugees will continue to be researched.
Where Do We Go From Here?
The theme of the entire semester has been, building communities in times of social unrest. Social unrest is contagious and cannot be contained in one part of the globe. How relevant is this assignment as we go through a pandemic of a contagious virus? “Like virus infection within large urban communities, social instability has spread rapidly over the past several years” (Braha 2012). As global citizens and scholars, what exactly is the cause of these patterns? We have to look deeper and reconstruct the way we think to make a real change toward social and civil unrest. Dr. Braha has taken this question and has started researching countries dating back 100 years from the United Nations. Economic crises are not enough to explain the global spread of protests. Dr. Braha has put together a model. The model consists of “[a] spatially extended interacting model, which is based on a spatial epidemic spreading dynamics. Social and political stress accumulates slowly on the grid and is released spontaneously in the form of social unrest on short time scales to nearest and long-range neighboring regions that are susceptible to social and political stress” (Braha 2012). When referring to the model, Dr. Braha was surprised when the productivity in the rapid increase of mass media was still not as robust as the unrest contagion mechanisms. If governments could be proactive in creating policies, the largest model that Dr. Braha created suggests, “the simple spatially extended dynamical model can be used to quantify the risk of large unrest activity as well as the deployment of policies whose goal is to temper the likelihood of unrest contagion” (Braha, 2012). Covid-19 has changed the world as we once viewed it. How will this virus affect new refugees trying to come into the United States?
Conclusion:
Changing the attitudes and the perceptions of individuals can be difficult, but the importance of learning cross-cultural competencies is essential to build communities in times of social unrest. Helping marginalized societies assimilate to their new cultures will likely decrease the impact of their experienced traumas on present and future emotional and physical well-being. Access to proper mental health screening and continued funding for mental health research is essential. The experience and the insight the Rockefeller has offered will allow us as interns to better educate the surrounding communities. Contributing to the academic conversation of the correlates of trauma among adolescent refugees and immigrants shows this topic of study has not always focused on the emotional trauma, but ensuring the necessities are meant in refugee communities. The experience of being an intern for the Rockefeller has allotted me the opportunity to see the stigma surrounding mental health in American culture, which has extended itself to the lack of prioritization related to the trauma experienced by adolescent refugees. Building community in times of social unrest comes with their challenges, but reaping the benefits are longer lasting in communities.
References:
Al-Hazza, T., & Bucher, K. (2010). Bridging a Cultural Divide with Literature about Arabs and Arab Americans. Middle School Journal, 41(3), 4–11. Retrieved February 24, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/23047567
Apa Presidential Task Force (2009) on PTSD and trauma in children and adolescents http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/task-force/child-trauma.aspx
Beiser, M. (2005). The Health of Immigrants and Refugees in Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health / Revue Canadienne De Sante’e Publique, 96, S30-S44. Retrieved February 24, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/41994458
Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 2016, pp. 1–32. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7864/j.ctt1c2cqws.6. Accessed 21 Feb. 2020.
Child Soldiers (2001), About Child Soldiers — Questions and Answers. http://www.childsoldiers.org/cs/childsoldiers.nsf/fffdbd058ae1d99d80256adc005c2bb8/b661e61443c22 7a8802569ba007d0f72?OpenDocument
Eisenbruch, M. (1988). The Mental Health of Refugee Children and Their Cultural Development. The International Migration Review, 22(2), 282–300. doi:10.2307/2546651
Emanuel, E. J., Ellenberg, S., & Levy, M. (2020, March 17). The Coronavirus Is Here to Stay, So What Happens Next? Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/opinion/coronavirus-social-distancing-effect.html
Hao, L., and Johnson, R. W. (2000). Economic, cultural, and social origins of emotional well-being: comparison of immigrants and natives at midlife. Res. Aging 22, 599–629. DOI: 10.1177/0164027500226002
Horyniak, D., Melo, J. S., Farrell, R. M., Ojeda, V. D., & Strathdee, S. A. (2016, July 13). Epidemiology of substance use among forced migrants: A global systematic review. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4943736/
Kaprielian-Churchill, I. (1996). Refugees and Education in Canadian Schools. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale De L’Education, 42(4), 349–365. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/3444907
Kovacev, L., & Shute, R. (2004). Acculturation and social support about psychosocial adjustment of adolescent refugees resettled in Australia. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(3), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000497
Malone, M. E., and Dooley, J. P. (2006). ‘Dwelling in displacement’ meanings of ‘community’ and sense of community for two generations of Irish people living in North-West London. Commun. Work Fam. 9, 11–28. DOI: 10.1080/13668800500420947
Maryann Amodeo MSW and Ph.D., Sonith Peou, Dorcas Grigg-Saito MPH and PT, Heidi Berke MSW, Saly Pin-Riebe MSW & L. Kay Jones MSW (2004) Providing Culturally Specific Substance Abuse Services in Refugee and Immigrant Communities: Lessons from a Cambodian Treatment and Demonstration Project, Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 4:3, 23–46, DOI: 10.1300/J160v04n03_03
McBrien, J. (2005). Educational Needs and Barriers for Refugee Students in the United States: A Review of the Literature. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 329–364. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/3515985
Miller, K & Rasmussen, A. (2017) The mental health of civilians displaces by armed conflict: An ecological model of refugee distress. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 26(2), 129–138. Doi:10,1017/S2045796016000172
Miriam Posselt, Cherrie Galletly, Charlotte de Crespigny & Nicholas Procter (2014) Mental health and drug and alcohol comorbidity in young people of refugee background: a review of the literature, Mental Health, and Substance Use, 7:1, 19–30, DOI: 10.1080/17523281.2013.772914
Murray, K. E., Davidson, G. R., & Schweitzer, R. D. (2010). Review of refugee mental health interventions following resettlement: best practices and recommendations. The American journal of orthopsychiatry, 80(4), 576–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01062.x
Papadopoulos RK (2001), Refugee families: issues of systemic supervision. Journal of Family Therapy 23: 405–422
Predicting the Behavior of Civil Unrest. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://necsi.edu/predicting-the-behavior-of-civil-unrest
Sepali Guruge, & Hissan Butt. (2015). A scoping review of mental health issues and concerns among immigrant and refugee youth in Canada: Looking back, moving forward. Canadian Journal of Public Health / Revue Canadienne De Santé Publique, 106(2), E72-E78. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/canajpublheal.106.2.0e72
Social Unrest. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.american.edu/spa/metro-policy/social-unrest.cfm
Sullivan, A., & Simonson, G. (2016). A systematic review of school-based social-emotional interventions for refugee and war-traumatized youth. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 503–530. Retrieved February 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/24752862
TAMUZ AVIVI | February 13. (n.d.). The class explores a new wave of global protests. Retrieved from https://www.jhunewsletter.com/article/2014/02/class-explores-new-wave-of-global-protests-43343/
“The Context, Causes, and Consequences of Syrian Displacement.” The Consequences of Chaos: Syria’s Humanitarian Crisis and the Failure to Protect, by ELIZABETH FERRIS and KEMAL KIRIŞCI, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C., 2016, pp. 1–32. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/10.7864/j.ctt1c2cqws.6. Accessed 21 Feb. 2020.
About the Author
A Lockport, New York native born and raised, Bethany Patterson grew up in the north end of town. Patterson was a frequent attendee at Lockport Little Loop games, where she watched her older brother play with all the neighborhood kids. It was during Patterson’s childhood that she noticed the close knit community that she lived in. As Patterson grew older she noticed she wanted to help the community she has known and grown to love. She went on to complete a bachelors in liberal arts from Suny Empire State College. Patterson at a young age knew she always wanted a deep connection to her community. Through her internship experience at the Rockefeller Institute and her new venture with SPEC (Sustainable Progress and Equality Collection) Patterson has gained important community leadership skills. This lead Patterson to being a co-founder of a local grassroots activist group called Citizens for Change. Patterson wants to be an active participant in her community to see where collective change can be made. Patterson certainly has the energy for any challenge as she spends her free time with her toddler son.
