[Series: Influential Educators] M. David Merrill & the Principles of Instruction
When it comes to learning, it’s important not to put the cart in front of the horse. Learning is important, but having guidelines and best-practices when it comes to facilitating that learning is even more important. That’s why our next educational influencer, M. David Merrill, has devoted so much time to studying the principles of instruction.
After receiving his PhD from the University of Illinois in 1964, Merrill has been a faculty member of several colleges, including George Peabody College, Stanford University and Florida State University to name a few. He is known globally for his contributions to the field of instructional technology. Merrill is also the proud recipient of the AECT Life Time Achievement Award, as well as the proud owner of the Ascape Tennsion & Sulphur Gulch Miniature Railroad.
Currently, Merrill keeps himself busy as an instructional effectiveness consultant at Utah State University as well as teaching online courses at Brigham Young University Hawaii and University of Hawaii.
Most recently, Merrill has been studying the First Principles of Instruction. Over the course of several years, Merrill evaluated existing theories on instructional design in order to outline common principles when it came to instruction. What he found was that although the principles may have been described differently in various theories, the underlying concepts were similar.
Merrill uncovered five principles of instruction: problem-centred, activation, demonstration, application and integration. Each principle will be discussed below.
Principle 1: Problem-centred
The problem solving principle allows learning to happen when students are engaging in solving real-life problems. The word problem is very broad, but in relation to these principles, Merrill defined it as including a variety of activities, more specifically an activity that is a whole task instead of several parts; something that learners will encounter in their lives after instruction. Within this principle, along with the other four, there are several concepts that stem from the over-arching idea:
Show task
More commonly than not, instruction usually begins by presenting learners with a vague list of objectives. What Merrill suggested should happen instead is to begin learning by showing the student a whole example of the task they will be able to accomplish or problem they will be able to solve after it has been taught.
Task level
Merrill liked to emphasize studying information as a whole. Traditional teaching often presents information by prerequisite topics that will introduce a whole task or problem. Instead of teaching individual actions and assuming your students can assemble the pieces to perform tasks in the real world, engage them at the whole task level. Merrill said there are four levels of performance that successful instructors should use to engage students: “the problem, the tasks required to solve the problem, the operations that comprise the tasks and the actions that comprise the operations.” By covering all four levels, the task can be learned as a whole.
Problem Progression
Most problems can be complex. In order to master the complexity, learners must start at an easier level. Once that problem is solved, they can progress to more complex problems, building their skill level over time.
Principle 2 — Activation
This principle involves acknowledging and incorporating past experiences into the learning process. Instead of jumping into new material head-first, it’s important to lay a foundation for the new knowledge. The easiest way to do this is base it in something the learner already knows and can relate to.
Previous experience
Learning can happen when past knowledge is described, related or applied to new knowledge, building a sturdy foundation for new learning. By providing learners with an opportunity to show what they already know, instruction can be made more efficient.
New experience
Not all learners will have relevant previous experience they can apply to new learnings. Instead of overwhelming the learner with new information, it is up to the instructor to provide an example to make the material relatable. The instructor should provide a relevant experience that can be used as a starting point to build the learning of new information.
Structure
Learning is encouraged when students can use a previous learning structure to help them organize new information. Using existing mental models that can be changed to help understand new learnings can make the process more efficient. If students have no relevant learning structures, it is up to the instructor to provide one.
Principle 3 — Demonstration
This principle is also described as “show me.” Instead of just talking about what students have learned, learning happens when they can demonstrate it. Including a portrayal of the information being learned makes it easier to remember and apply.
Instead of just talking about what students have learned, learning happens when they can demonstrate it.
Demonstration consistency
For learning to happen, the demonstrations must be in-line with learning objectives. Before presenting any information, it is important to outline the criteria for consistency. If the criteria does not line up with the learning objectives, learner guidance and relevant media (discussed below) will also be ineffective.
Learner Guidance
Learning is facilitated when the student is guided by somebody else. Instructors can help students focus on the most relevant information in the task by identifying and mapping out structural features. Once students become confident in what they are learning, instructors can move away from providing focus and allow the students to do this on their own.
It is also important for instructors to provide several examples of the concepts being taught. This will help provide different perspectives and alternate points of view on a subject.
Relevant Media
When using media, it’s important to make sure it has an instructional role and that different forms of media are not competing with one another. For example, Merrill said that text and graphic media can compete for the attention of the learner, increasing the amount of information they are trying to learn. When incorporating media with instruction, it is also important to make sure it has a meaningful purpose.
Principle 4 — Application
This principle is also referred to as “let me,” allowing learning to happen when students use their new knowledge to solve problems on their own. While many instructors use multiple choice questions to practice or test knowledge, application leads to applying new skills in real-world tasks instead.
Practice Consistency
Like demonstration consistency, learning happens when practicing new skills is consistent with learning objectives. There will be different types of practice (recognizing information, identifying new examples etc.) for each learning goal but in all cases they must be consistent with one another. Otherwise, no amount of coaching or feedback (explained below) will be effective.
Diminishing Coaching
Learning is encouraged when problem solving is directed by feedback and coaching, helping to catch and correct errors. Over time, this coaching is slowly removed. This concept is very similar to Scaffolding: students need support when learning a new concept, eventually decreasing in necessity as they become more confident. Students must also understand that making mistakes is okay as when they are recognized, they provide an opportunity to remedy the error and avoid making it again.
Varied Problems
Applying new knowledge to one problem will stunt growth. Practice must be completed by taking several opportunities to use new skills to solve a variety of problems. Providing a range of scenarios and examples gives students different ways to approach practicing and learning.
Principle 5 — Integration
The last principle indicates that learning happens when students can use new knowledge in their day-to-day lives. They can make personal adaptations of the skill, improve upon it and defend their knowledge to suit their everyday lives. As Merrill said, “the real motivation for learners is learning.”
Watch Me
“Learning is the most motivating of all activities when the leaner can observe his or her own progress,” M. David Merrill
Learning continues to happen when the student can publicly showcase their new information and demonstrate what they have worked hard to learn. “Learning is the most motivating of all activities when the leaner can observe his or her own progress,” said Merrill.
Reflection
As students discuss, consider and defend their new skill, learning continues to happen. In order for learners to introduce what they have learned into their daily repertoire of skills, they must be able to effectively defend and share what they’ve learned.
Creation
Successful learning happens when students can find new ways to create, invent and explore using their new knowledge, making the skill their own. Learners must go beyond instruction to create, revise and refocus their new knowledge, an important final stage of the learning experience.
While reading about Merrill’s Principles of Instruction, it’s easy to apply the learning from each stage to examples we’ve experienced in the past. Moving forward, it’s important to remember these principles, whether you’re the teacher or the student, in order to help find success when studying.
Originally published on the McGraw-Hill Education Canada blog.
