Napoleon’s Campaign in Egypt, 1798
“EGYPT’S LOCATION MADE IT THE PERFECT BASE FROM WHICH THE FRENCH COULD MENACE BRITISH INTERESTS.”
Egypt has always captivated the attention of great powers throughout history, thanks to its strategic location and immense wealth. This was particularly evident in 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte led a massive military campaign with the aim of establishing a French colony in Egypt and threatening British interests in India, marking the beginning of a new era in the region’s history. Due to the significance of this period, this research seeks to decipher the motives behind the French campaign on Egypt, shedding light on the political and military factors that propelled France towards this decisive decision.
The Preparation for the Invasion
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Before the onset of the French campaign on Egypt, Charles Maloufoun, who served as the French Consul in Egypt, presented a compelling report to his government on February 9, 1798. In his appeal, he emphasized the necessity of occupying Egypt, stressing the potential benefits such an endeavor could yield, such as control over its resources and trade, and outlining the advantages France could reap from this venture. Shortly thereafter, the French government received a message from Talleyrand, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who played a crucial role in the records of the French campaign on Egypt.
Talleyrand’s message addressed the historical relations between France and Egypt, elucidating the strategic importance of Egyptian occupation. It persuasively laid out the logical reasons for seizing Egypt and urged to exploit the opportunity for launching an exploratory campaign and capitalizing on its potentials. It also delineated the logistical considerations for this project, including the readiness of forces and the maritime and military strategic requirements. The report stressed the necessity of respecting Egyptian customs and traditions and the sentiments of its people, emphasizing the importance of winning goodwill by respecting their educated figures and complying with their viewpoints.
These two reports had a profound impact on the deliberations of the French government regarding the invasion of Egypt in the aftermath of the revolution. Transitioning from thought to action, historic decrees were issued appointing the Eastern Army under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte on April 12, 1798. Among the directives set forth were six articles elucidating the motives that drove the government to embark on the Egyptian campaign, including holding the Mamluks accountable for their hostility towards the French, seeking alternative trade routes after the British obstruction of the Bab al-Mandab strait, and affirming French dominance over the eastern territories, particularly in Red Sea trade, with a call for control over the Suez Canal.
The Campaign in Egypt
Louis-François, Baron Lejeune (Public Domain)
Since 1517, Egypt had been under the control of the Ottoman Empire, yet the Sultan’s grip weakened over the centuries. By 1798, Egypt found itself directly subjected to the rule of the Mamluks, a military class originating from the Caucasus Mountains. The Mamluks were notorious for their oppressive taxes and were despised by the populace, yet they held sway over the land. In the eyes of Egyptians, Napoleon Bonaparte sought to present himself as a liberator. Through posters distributed throughout the country, he proclaimed divine authorization, affirming that he was chosen by God to overthrow the tyranny of the Mamluks. In an attempt to circumvent hostility from the Ottoman Empire, assurances were presented to Sultan Selim III that Egypt would faithfully continue its annual tribute. It was expected that the French Foreign Minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, would convey these assurances directly to the Sultan in Istanbul, but he failed to undertake the journey.
On July 1st, the French fleet anchored off the shores of Alexandria, signaling the commencement of Napoleon’s grand endeavor. Napoleon disembarked near the Qaitbay Citadel, approximately 13 kilometers from the city, wasting no time in launching his assault. At daybreak, French forces descended upon Alexandria with relentless fury. General Menou led the attack on the outskirts, while Kleber and Bon took control of the gates of Pompey and Rashid. The French soldiers pressed on, and by midday, the city lay within their grasp, indicative of the swift and decisive nature of their advance.
Napoleon spent seven days in Alexandria before setting off for Cairo on July 7th. His military expedition comprised 2,000 men responsible for defense, and their journey was fraught with difficulties due to polluted and obstructed wells laid by Arab adversaries along the way. Many soldiers suffered injuries to their eyes, leading to temporary blindness, in addition to ongoing skirmishes with pursuers.
On July 10th, the army reached the banks of the Nile. In a desperate attempt to obtain water, soldiers consumed contaminated water, resulting in fatalities due to food poisoning. On July 13th, Napoleon encountered the Mamluk army in the Battle of Shubra Khit and emerged victorious, forcing them into a temporary retreat to regroup their forces. They returned with strength on July 21st, outnumbering Napoleon and attacking him in the Battle of the Pyramids.
In this battle, the Mamluk cavalry failed to penetrate the French gunfire. Due to the ferocity of the French attack, the ranks of the Mamluks collapsed, and the French achieved a significant victory, gathering ample spoils and pursuing bodies along the banks of the Nile. Subsequently, Napoleon entered Cairo on July 24th. Meanwhile, General Desaix was dispatched to pursue Murad and Ibrahim in Upper Egypt, where they achieved successive victories, further expanding France’s influence in the region.
The Occupation of Cairo
Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson (Public Domain)
In his attempt to sway Egyptians to his cause, Napoleon, who controlled a large portion of Egypt, immersed himself in religious rhetoric alongside the Cairo scholars. Through his understanding of the Quran, he bolstered the impression that he was considering embracing Islam. By August, he spared no effort in organizing a grand celebration lasting three days to commemorate the Prophet’s birthday. Amidst these festivities, he was welcomed and bestowed with the title “Ali Bonaparte”. At the peak of the celebrations, the Scientific Institute under Monge’s leadership was inaugurated, a scene designed to impress the masses with enlightenment.
However, opposition brewed, fueled by anger at the French occupation, which continued to impose its oppressive and despotic policies on the Egyptians, including levying exorbitant taxes by various means, whether to sustain its army or to achieve personal goals. Talleyrand’s failure to uphold his end of the bargain only fueled the flames. When news reached Cairo of Ottoman mobilization in the Levant, indicating an imminent attack, revolution erupted in the city. General Dupuy, the military governor of the city, found himself pushed into a bloody battle from street to street. Amidst this chaos, Napoleon and his entourage met a violent end, and as casualties mounted, Napoleon realized the urgent need for swift and harsh retaliation to quell the rebellion against him.
With time running short, Napoleon launched a brutal suppression campaign, bombarding the Al-Azhar Mosque, the rebels’ stronghold. The ensuing clashes claimed the lives of thousands, as the rebels faced grim fates in public executions. Napoleon’s message was clear: there would be no tolerance for opposition. Heads were severed and displayed as gruesome warnings, bodies disposed of in the Nile, and the streets of Cairo witnessed brutal suppression of resistance. By November, the revolution was crushed, allowing Napoleon to redirect his focus towards the escalating threat from the Levant.
The Epilogue
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The campaign of Bonaparte in Egypt is an unforgettable chapter in history, beginning with great aspirations and stunning victories, and ending with a sudden withdrawal, betrayal, and a shift in the campaign’s fate. Despite Napoleon’s painful failure to maintain Egypt under French control and his eventual retreat from it, the campaign had lasting effects on the political and military landscape of the region for years to come. Despite the Treaty of Paris signed on June 25, 1802, which ended hostilities between France and the Ottoman Empire, the impact of the French campaign in Egypt continued to manifest in the long term. This campaign bolstered other regional powers, affected the balance of power in the region, and created an environment for new conflicts and alliances.
Ultimately, Egypt continued to build its history and development, overcoming the challenges it faced during Bonaparte’s campaign. Despite changes in ruling parties and shifts in sovereign-ties, Egypt remained strong and present, proving itself to be a land with a rich history and ongoing challenges, always ready to endure and adapt to what comes next.
