The Rise And Fall of the Roman Republic…in the 19th Century
The Story Of The Short-lived Revolutionary State That Chased Out The Papacy
The year 1848 was the penultimate one for Europe as a wave of revolutionary fervor saw traditional systems of governance come under attack by demands for liberal reform.
The French monarchy was replaced by the Second French Republic, German nationalists attempted to turn the patchwork of German states into a united Germany, Hungary launched its bid of independence against the Austrian Empire, and many other revolutionary groups struck fear into the hearts of Europe’s monarchies. While many of these revolutions were crushed in 1849, they were a sign that the days of the old European system reestablished after the Napoleonic Wars were numbered.
Even the Papacy- perhaps the oldest institution of them all- was not safe from this Year of Revolutions. From February 9th, 1849 to July 3rd, 1849, the Pope would find himself chased out of Rome as democratic reformers and those clamoring for Italian unity established a Republic, one that would model itself after the ancient power that ruled there more than two millennia ago and set the stage for the unification of Italy in two decades time.
The Rise
Throughout the 1840s, the Papal States were rocked by internal discontent. As liberal ideas spread throughout Europe, the idea of a state dominated by the Pope and Catholic clergy became increasingly anachronistic, a relic of the medieval era that stood in the way of reform and unification.
When Pope Pius IX was elected in 1846, he initially appeared to champion the reforming of the Papal States, leading to some hope that he would be the leader to unite the Italian states into one country. However, the outbreak of revolutions in 1848 made the Pontiff lose his nerve, and he rapidly reversed course into a more conservative policy.
For the reformers who cheered at the idea of a liberal pope, this backtracking was extremely disappointing. But the push for reform once started could not be stopped by one man, and they chose to push forward regardless of Pius’ reluctance.
On November 15th 1848, this discontent was catalyzed into a full revolution with the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, the papal Minister of Justice. As protestors demanding reform filled the streets of Rome, the Pope was forced to flee the city and take up residence at Gaeta, 75 miles to the south.
With the Pope gone, elections were held on January 21st, 1849 to form a new government, ignoring Pius IX’s threats of excommunication. On February 9th, a Constitutional Assembly for the Roman Republic was formed, led by a triumvirate of famed Italian revolutionaries: Giuseppe Mazzini, Aurelio Saffi, and Carlo Armellini. The temporal power of the Pope was abolished, though the revolutionaries did permit Pius IX to return, if only as the leader of the Roman Catholic Church.
A Roman Constitution was also declared not long after the birth of the Republic, promising freedom of speech, religion, and the press. It was also the very first constitution in the world to ban capital punishment within its texts. The full text of the document can be read here.
In yet another example of the energy and passion poured into the birth of this young Republic, an “Italian Legion” was formed from volunteers arriving from all over Italy. Led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, future hero of Italian unification, they became a disciplined force ready to protect the Roman Republic from near-inevitable invasion.
As for the flag of the new nation, the revolutionaries adopted the green, white, and red Italian tricolor, with a Roman eagle on the tip of the flagpole. This was a signal that the Republic would not just be confined to the former Papal States but serve as the nucleus for a united Italy, one that shared a Roman heritage and could be united in the ideals of revolution.
The Fall
Unfortunately for the Roman Republic, Pope Pius IX was unwilling to let go of temporal power that easily. Appealing to the rest of Europe for aid against these revolutionaries, he soon found receptive ears in Napoleon III, President and future Emperor of France. His intervention was not out of any goodwill towards the pope, but to keep Italy divided and susceptible to French influence.
The Roman Republic also called out for aid to the rest of Europe, but few were willing to listen. After the revolutions of 1848, the majority of nations desired a return to the status quo and were unwilling to “rock the boat” by recognizing the infant Republic.
There was one nation that almost recognized the Republic- the United States of America. A delegation led by Lewis Cass Jr. arrived in Rome and ultimately decided that the United States should provide diplomatic recognition, but Rome fell before President James K. Polk (D-Tennessee) could confirm his decision.
On June 1st, the French army arrived and began to besiege the city of Rome. While Garibaldi’s Italian Legion and the citizens fought bravely, their lack of numbers made it a futile effort. Realizing that the Roman Republic was doomed to fail, the Triumvirate chose to surrender on July 3rd rather than inflict more damage to the city and its population. Garibaldi, however, was able to escape with his remaining Legionnaires to the tiny Republic of San Marino, where he would plan his next move for Italian unification.
The Roman Republic thus died after a mere five months of existence, and Pope Pius IX moved back into the city in 1850. From this point until the Kingdom of Italy’s annexation of the Papal States in 1870, he would always surround himself with a French garrison.
Despite its short existence, the Roman Republic served as an inspiration for the future leaders of Italian unification, and a symbol of republicanism in the heart of the peninsula. Many of its members, such as Garibaldi and Mazzini, would continue the fight for a united Italy, and the tricolor used by the revolutionaries would later be adopted as the symbol of a united Italy.
