Certification in humanity: the Middle Ages
As discussed in the article on certification in antiquity, certification systems have shaped the great human civilizations.
This article focuses on the crucial influence of certification in society during the Middle Ages, a complex period stretching from the 5th to the end of the 15th century, marked by political fragmentation after the fall of the Roman Empire. Certification, through elements such as feudal seals, tabellions and bills of exchange, played a central role in the preservation, authentication and transmission of information in the age of castles. We examine how these practices helped to maintain order, establish norms and adapt society to the changing realities of the medieval era. Highlighting the evolution of certification techniques, we observe the persistence and adaptation of ancient Roman methods in the feudal context. These shaped the legal and societal structure of this pivotal period in European history.
Certification is not simply an administrative formality; it is the authentic mark that seals the essence of an era, conferring on every act, every work, a legitimacy that transcends paper to become the palpable testimony of history.
The Art of the Seal in the Middle Ages: Guardian of Authenticity and Symbol of Identity
In the heart of the Middle Ages, a time when the written word was not commonplace, seals and hallmarks emerged as precious guardians of document authenticity. Far from being mere ornaments, these embossed impressions played a crucial role in recognizing authors and validating deeds. Their use dates back to Antiquity, but it was not until the Middle Ages that they became widespread.
A symbol of the holder’s legal personality, it has a triple function:
- It closes, “seals” and guarantees the secrecy or integrity of a content.
- It affirms and indicates ownership of the sealed object.
- The third is the most important: it validates and authenticates the written act.
Seals of the Powers and Great Lords
Frederick I, Barbarossa (1122–1190) German emperor of the House of Hohenstaufen, elected emperor by the Frankfurt Diet in 1152 and crowned in Rome in 1155 by Pope Adrian IV.
Under the Carolingian dynasty (8th to 10th centuries), the seal acquired a binding legal value, finding a significant place in royal chancelleries. In the 11th century, it spread among the great lords, adding a symbolic dimension through equestrian seals. These depict the lords on horseback and in battle dress, while the suzerains are distinguished by majestic seals in which they sit on their throne, adorned with the attributes of power. The assertion of royal and feudal power was inscribed on these seals, and their daily use reinforced their authority and imposed their control over all transactions within their territory. They were used to certify and validate commercial agreements, land transactions, marriages and alliances, and all official declarations.
Seal of Louis IV d’Outremer riveted to a deed from 953. Characteristic of Carolingian chancelleries, the riveted seal technique consisted of pressing the wax wafer onto the parchment and pushing part of it through an incision to flatten it on the reverse. AD Marne, 56 H 33
Extension to the whole of society
Between the 12th and 13th centuries, the use of seals spread to different segments of society. Ladies of the aristocracy, religious communities, towns and cities, as well as the entire clergy and minor nobility, adopted seals to formalize their documents. These prints became witnesses to social evolution, reflecting the ruling classes, the bourgeoisie and even women.
second seal of Jeanne de Navarre, Queen of France (1285–1305). On the pillars, on the left, the shield of France; on the right, that of Navarre. AN, sc/D 157
Evolution of Seals: Towards a Trading Company
The proliferation of seals, particularly city seals, reflects the rise of trade and municipal franchises. They became an indispensable means of validating transactions and contracts, reflecting the economic and social evolution of medieval society. As trade expanded, so did the need for certification.
A compass and a doloire, on a fretted field ( text SEGHEL — DER — CVPERS — VAN — BRVGGhE) 1407 — DEMAY G., Inventaire des sceaux de Flandre, Paris, 1873 , n° 4769
Certification at the Service of Society: Notaries and Tabellions
Alongside seals, notaries and tabellions were responsible for certifying deeds in the Middle Ages. These public officials drew up and authenticated a variety of deeds, reinforcing trust in legal and family transactions. The distinction between notaries and tabellions was often clear, with the notary drawing up a variety of deeds, while the tabellion specialized in certification.
Champagne fair seal (1333). Since the 13th century, the custodian of the Champagne fairs has acted as a notary, giving the sanction of county and then royal authority to private law deeds relating to transactions and debts signed under his seal Archives nationales, sc/B 584.
City seals, trade seals and coats of arms
Beyond their role in authenticating documents, seals played a crucial role in representing urban identities, trade guilds and aristocratic families. Alsatian towns, such as those of the Decapolis, developed distinct seals, testifying to their alliance in defense of their freedoms. Trade guilds, with their own seals, contributed to the growth of trade and the validation of products. Coats of arms, initially used by knights to identify themselves, evolved into symbols present in all aspects of daily life, reflecting identity and belonging to a family or town.
1289 seal of the city of Strasbourg
Seals of clergy, bishops and monasteries
Seals were also important instruments for the medieval clergy. Bishops, popes and monasteries used seals to authenticate documents, marking their influence and authority in medieval society. Alsace, with its many dioceses and religious institutions, offers a diverse panorama of the use of seals in the ecclesiastical context.
H/7834/4 — Ratification by Richard the Lionheart of the acquisition of Robehomme by the abbey of Saint-Martin de Troarn (1190). The seal, known as “sur double queue”, is attached to the deed by a link passed through the holes on the fold of the document. (archives du calvados)
- hanging seal, suspended by ties. They can be made of parchment, silk lak, cord or leather.
Hanging seals were used by various categories of people, including high-ranking personalities, peasants who had not mastered reading and writing, institutional bodies such as universities, monasteries and craft guilds, and municipalities. They served as signatures and were attached to documents by leather or silk laces, commonly known as “tails”.
Emperor Louis IV cedes the village of Kintzheim March 16, 1338 to the town of Sélestat. Charter on parchment, green silk cord with fragment of seal. The original seal measures over 10 cm in diameter. A mold of the complete seal, made by the Museum of the Sceal of Alsace, is kept in the Archives. Many very fragile seals have disappeared or are in fragmentary condition. The deterioration of wax and silk lakes, fragile materials that have survived the centuries with much damage, is frequent. The disappearance of seals can also be the result of past malice. Archives municipales de Sélestat: DD8 (1338)
Seal rings:
The Merovingians (5th to 8th centuries) were skilled metalworkers who produced jewelry, including gold or bronze seal rings. These rings often featured only the name or monogram of the ring’s owner. More simply, a crossed-out S is sometimes engraved, followed by a dot signifying signum or sigillum (sceal). Intended to be affixed to documents alongside the names of witnesses or the subscriber to the deed, this mark appears only for the purpose of authenticity, turning the seal into proof. During the High Middle Ages, many women began to own their own sigil rings, as attested by the many examples found during burial excavations.
Paris — Musée de Cluny — Merovingian times — Ingonde ring — 523
There are also important imprints received at the bottom of Merovingian diplomas by princes of this dynasty, such as that of Childeric I (5th century) or Clovis I. Queens also had their own, like Berteildis, wife of Dagobert I. Carolingian chancelleries continued in the same vein to validate their deeds. Initially, antique intaglios depicting divinities or emperor portraits were used. In the Byzantine Empire, important technical innovations were made: chancelleries adopted a pliers-like device for printing lead; this metal was a great success, as the lead “bulla” of popes, adopted at least as early as the 7th century, eventually gave its name to the document.
boullotirion Bizantin, tool used to make lead bullae
Papal Bull, Innocent III. n.d. (1198–1216).
The bulla is mainly used in central, southern and insular Italy, where it is practically the only seal used. On the other hand, it is unknown in northern Flanders and England.
Cast of the seal of William the Conqueror (11th century, Archives du Calvados))
In other regions, it is used alongside wax seals (Northern Italy, Provence, Dauphiné, Lyonnais, Languedoc, Iberia). The reasons for using a bulla were fashionable, and it was under the Carolingians (8th-9th centuries), and then in the 12th and 13th centuries, that it became most common. By the end of the Middle Ages, seals were disappearing everywhere. The seal was gradually democratized in the context of the breakdown and weakening of public power. At first, seals were only used on royal or imperial deeds, but from the 11th century onwards, ecclesiastics and lords were allowed to use them in their own effigy, as did the Counts of Flanders around 1050. In the course of the 12th century, middle-class citizens, towns and even, from the 13th century onwards, craftsmen and peasants began to use them, symbolizing a degree of legal autonomy.
Seals in the Middle Ages were much more than mere ornaments. They were the guardians of document authenticity, bearing witness to the social, economic and legal evolution of medieval society. The seals of cities, trade guilds and aristocratic families are visual reminders of a bygone era, but their legacy lives on in our understanding of medieval identity. Each imprint carries the weight of certification, shaping a period when visualization was as important as writing.
Notaries and Tabellions in the Middle Ages: Guardians of Legal Authenticity
At the heart of medieval society, the profession of notary played a central role in preserving the legal order. This institution, whose roots go back to Roman times, developed significantly in the Middle Ages, influenced by the revival of Roman law and trade with Italy. At the same time, tabellions, the equivalent of notaries, also emerged, although their connotations varied geographically and historically.
The history of the medieval notary’s office, particularly in Provence from the last quarter of the 12th century onwards, reveals a substantial evolution. As ministerial officers, notaries gradually shaped their role within society. Their registers, classified as brouillards, protocoles and registery, provide a rich and varied record of medieval daily life. Carefully recorded contracts, wills, real estate transactions, dowry settlements and other deeds are an invaluable source for understanding the social and economic dynamics of the period.
Register of notaries (14th century), Bibliothèque Augusta Perugia (Italy)
Certification, the cornerstone of the profession, was ensured by the signature and seal of the notary or tabellion. This legal authenticity conferred on deeds reinforced confidence in commercial and family transactions. Notaries were much more than mere drafters of deeds; they were the guardians of legal stability, actively contributing to the creation and maintenance of the medieval social fabric.
notarial minute register 1415–1436 archives de la Loire
Conditions for access to the profession were strict, involving criteria of religion, legitimate birth, material and moral independence, age and honorability. Notaries had to swear an oath and obtain the privilegium notariatus to exercise their function, underlining the ethical and social importance of the profession.
The distinction between notary and tabellion, although sometimes confused, was clear. While the notary drew up a variety of deeds, the tabellion specialized in the certified reproduction of existing documents. This complementarity reflected the diversity of legal functions required by medieval society. Historical developments, notably under Henri IV’s Edict of May 1597, led to the gradual merging of the two professions under the term “notaire”.
In the Middle Ages, notaries and tabellions were much more than mere civil servants. They were the architects of legal stability, weaving the legal bonds that formed the bedrock of medieval society. Their registers, a veritable treasure trove of information, attest to the crucial importance of certification in preserving the social and legal order of the time.
Certification by Bills of Exchange in the Middle Ages: An Ancient Art of Commerce
The bill of exchange, as we know it today, has its roots deep in the commercial practices of the Middle Ages. During this tumultuous period in history, certification by bill of exchange became a crucial instrument, facilitating trade across Europe and laying the foundations for an evolving financial system.
History of Bills of Exchange in the Middle Ages :
In the Middle Ages, commercial travel was often risky and laborious. Merchants, seeking to minimize the dangers of transporting large sums of money, began to use bills of exchange as a means of certifying remote payments. Although its origins are often associated with ancient Rome, it was in the Middle Ages that the bill of exchange really took off. The system was democratized by the Knights Templar (in the 12th and 13th centuries) when they accompanied Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem. The merchant would ask his banker to provide him with a means of exchange in the foreign country he was visiting. The banker would deliver a letter to his correspondent on the spot.
The seal of the Order of the Temple represents 2 people sharing the same horse. A symbol of poverty (although each Templar could own up to 3 horses…), it reads “Sigilum Militum Xpisti” = “Military Seal of Christ”.
The earliest examples of bills of exchange date from the 13th century. These were documents written in epistolary form, containing payment orders between different parties. They were used to exchange money between different currencies, facilitating commercial transactions across medieval regions and markets.
Certification and Contracts :
Bills of exchange in the Middle Ages did more than just facilitate payment. They also played a crucial role in certifying commercial contracts. Merchants could issue bills of exchange as payment guarantees for future transactions. These letters thus served as commercial contracts, setting out the terms of the agreement between the parties involved.
The moneychanger, an expert in monetary transactions, became a central figure in the certification process. Merchants used these professionals to issue bills of exchange, ensuring the reliability of transactions and the security of the funds involved.
Historical examples:
One notable example dates back to 1325, with a bill of exchange issued in Milan and payable in Lucca five months from the date of issue. This document bears witness to the early and widespread use of bills of exchange for long-distance payments.
In a letter from Cicero dating from the 12th book, the Venetian banker, acting as intermediary, sends twenty-five thousand silver marcs to Emperor Frederick II in Germany. This bill of exchange illustrates how merchants used this medium for transnational payments.
Uses in Medieval Trade :
Beyond simple transactions, bills of exchange were also used in commercial centers such as those in Champagne, where sellers allowed customers to leave with goods on parole, fixing payment at later markets. Bills of exchange were then used to formalize these arrangements.
Jacques Coeur :
Jacques Cœur, a notable merchant and silversmith in 15th-century France, and Palais Jacques Cœur in Bourges, tangible testimonies to certification in medieval architecture. Highlighting the life of Jacques Cœur, we observe how a visionary businessman transcended the boundaries between commerce, art and certification, leaving behind a legacy that resonates across the centuries.
Jacques Cœur, the architect of financial renewal after the Hundred Years’ War, left his mark on history by stimulating trade between France and the Orient. To establish his power in international trade, he innovated by introducing avant-garde practices such as the use of bills of exchange and certifications.
Jacques Cœur’s bold strategy was aimed at competing with renowned trading centers such as Venice and Genoa. At a time when commercial transactions were often based on trust, the introduction of certifications and other secure methods revolutionized his business. He exploited mines in France to ensure a stable supply of precious metals, strengthening his position in the trade.
Through his operations, Jacques Cœur laid a solid foundation for future trade with the Orient. His ventures stretched from silver mines to Mediterranean ports, and his monopoly in the import of spices and the transport of goods to Muslim ports testified to his growing influence.
Although his career was marred by spurious accusations and subsequent disgrace, Jacques Cœur’s legacy lies in his avant-garde vision of commerce, with the use of certifications as an essential pillar in building his economic power. We owe him the motto: à cœur vaillant rien d’impossible (nothing is impossible for a willing heart.)
Bills of exchange in Europe.
The markets of the Netherlands, Italy and southern France also adopted bills of exchange as a means of payment, demonstrating their central role in medieval trade. The development and use of this technique made it possible to certify commercial transactions, and greatly contributed to the liberalization of trade between kingdoms and empires.
Certification by bills of exchange in the Middle Ages marked a milestone in the history of trade and financial transactions.
It facilitated trade, mitigated the risks associated with travel, and established a system that was perpetuated in subsequent centuries. Through historical examples and varied uses, the bill of exchange proved its vital role in the complex tapestry of medieval trade, helping to lay the foundations of the modern financial system we know today.
Jacques Coeur plan and international trade Palais Jacques Cœur / Centre des monuments nationaux
By exploring the rich fabric of certification in the Middle Ages, we uncover a complex web of social, legal and commercial interactions that shaped this pivotal period in European history. From feudal seals to bills of exchange, certification played a crucial role in preserving order, authenticating deeds and facilitating trade.
Far more than mere ornaments, seals were the guardians of document authenticity, bearing witness to the social, economic and legal evolution of medieval society. From the embossed imprints of the powerful and the great lords to the seals of towns, trades and the clergy, each mark carried the weight of certification, symbolizing identity and power at a time when visualization was as important as writing.
Notaries and tabellions, guardians of legal authenticity, contributed greatly to the legal stability of medieval society. Their registers, a veritable treasure trove of information, attest to the crucial importance of certification in preserving the social and legal order of the time.
The bill of exchange, emerging as a crucial instrument, facilitated commercial exchanges throughout medieval Europe. Beyond simple transactions, it also played a role in the certification of commercial contracts, testifying to the evolution of commercial practices and the establishment of an evolving financial system.
However, certification was not limited to legal acts and financial transactions. It also manifested itself in masterpieces of building and art, embodying a strong identity and innovative ideas. Gothic cathedrals, castles, illuminated manuscripts and works of art were all certified masterpieces, guaranteeing the mark of an era imbued with rare refinement and new ideas.
Thus, certification in the Middle Ages was much more than just an administrative process. It was the pillar on which the social, legal and commercial order rested, symbolizing the very essence of an era that embraced authenticity, trust and creative expression. Every seal, every deed, every bill of exchange was a piece of the complex puzzle that defined the Middle Ages, a period when certification transcended paper to become the tangible witness to history.
In a future article, we’ll continue our journey back in time to explore what the Renaissance brought in the way of new certification techniques. Thank you for your attention.
(For further reading, I recommend the book Le Grand Coeur by Jean Christophe Rufin on the story of Jacques Coeur).
