IB History IA- Soviet- Czechoslovak Hockey
This project explored the question: To what extent did the ice hockey rivalry between the USSR and Czechoslovakia in the 1960’s reflect rising tensions between the two nations? The project consisted of three parts- an analysis of two major sources, the investigation and a reflection- all with a 2200 word limit for the entire project. The following is the most current draft of the investigation
Since the earliest 20th century, governments used competitive sports as a political tool. From Olympic games bidding wars to boycotts, sports were used to influence diplomatic relationships, spread ideology and protest.[1] Sports were especially important to the USSR and its satellites where they were seen as a “mouthpiece of public policy” and used to “display supremacy” as the Cold War escalated.[2] In addition, the development of sports programs and competition in satellite countries helped strengthen ties with each other and became an avenue for the USSR to tighten control over the region.[3] The role of sports in inter- communist relationships is exemplified by the Soviet- Czech ice hockey rivalry during the 1960’s where hockey arenas became the “ main place where political games were played out”.[4]As Soviet- Czechoslovakian relationships deteriorated, the ice hockey rivalry became an outlet for Czechoslovakians to express their increasingly negative views of USSR that contributed to further deterioration of relations.
Much of the research on Soviet Czechoslovak relations focuses on the tensions of the late 1960’s; however, relations during the early 1960’s were diplomatic. Emphasis on mutual understanding replaced the one- sided “Stalinist expectation of friendship”, allowing for increased communication between governments and citizens alike, demonstrated by mass tourism and booming trade.[5] Although many of the interactions were government directed, historians including Rachel Applebaum argue that genuine connections were made. Indeed, Czechoslovakians used Soviet products “in daily life” despite having access to Western products.[6]
Tensions between the USSR and Czechoslovakia rose significantly during the late 1960’s as Czech desires for independence clashed with Brezhnev’s reversals of Khrushchev- era liberalization.[7] This was evident when Czechoslovakian chief of General Staff Otakar Rytir remarked in 1968 at a “confidential meeting” that he “could no longer tolerate” the demand to increase Czech contribution to the Warsaw Pact defense initiative, which led to “sharp clashes” with the Moscow-controlled unified command.[8] The greatest cause of tensions was the Prague Springs- a series of liberalizations that lasted from January 1968 to August 1968. These changes, although, initially tacitly accepted, quickly became unacceptable as Czechoslovakians made increasingly “radical” demands for reform.[9] This culminated in a Soviet led invasion on August 21, 1968 that turned “ironic contempt” into “bitter hatred.”[10]
Unable to openly express direct opposition as a result of restriction in civil liberties, Czechoslovakians used Ice hockey games to openly express discontent, revealing deep tensions. Games became increasingly violent and featured overt expressions of hostility against the USSR including anti- Soviet slogans, fights and deliberate violence against Soviet players.[11] This culminated in the hockey riots in March 1969 following Czech victory at the world championship. Riots exceeding 1000 participants broke out in nearly every major city and featured vandalism. The largest, in Prague, allegedly had “nearly 100,000 attendees” and led to the “destruction” of Aeroflot offices and “raid[ing]” of Soviet barracks.[12] The “100,000” figure and severity of damages was from a Soviet report and likely overstated; however, many historians including Mikhail Prozumenschikov and John Soares argue that, regardless of the exact figures, the repeated violent reactions to Soviet-Czechoslovak gamse evidence a desire to “take revenge” on “occupiers”.[13] Particularly the 1969 riots are argued to be a celebration that “spontaneously turned into a political manifestation of resistance against all things Soviet and, in particular, against the presence of the Soviet Army in Czechoslovakia.” Historians like Olerich Tuma support this assertion, citing that the largest riots occurred where Soviet troops were stationed.
Propaganda efforts to quell the unrest failed both in preventing violence and concealing tensions. Czechoslovak correspondence featured conciliatory language and USSR reports of games only reported “friendly atmosphere(s)” and “true sports competition.”[14] Such efforts backfired since “the more enthusiastic and ingratiating the official heads were to their Soviet “friends,” the more hostility occurred in the stands.”[15] In one instance, an attempt by Soviet state media to divert attention away from violence on the ice ended up drawing attention to the hostility by focusing cameras onto jeering Czech fans.[16] In addition, Even the Czechoslovakian press, previously a puppet of the state, expressed a marked shift in opinions regarding Soviet hockey. Previous claims that the Czech team “ still [had] a lot to learn” were replaced with sharp criticisms.[17] While the government officials still tried to cover up unrest through “bilateral meetings”, the tensions could not be hidden as hockey violence began to receive “a wide international response.”[18]
Not only did the ice hockey rivalry expose tensions, it may even have exacerbated tensions, preventing diplomacy between the two nations. The violence and unrest caused conflict that bled over to political discussions ‘at the highest level.”[19] Stephan Chervonenko, Soviet ambassador to Czechoslovakia, warned that the “political character” of hockey matches “could have a negative effect on Soviet Czech relations.”[20] The Czech government agreed with this assessment, discussing how violence would “hinder friendship”.[21] More significantly, the USSR used Czechoslovak behavior during hockey games as an impetus for reasserting control, leading to further conflict. Uniforms of Czech hockey team, which failed to “display the name of the socialist homeland”, were used as “evidence” of “counterrevolutionary activity”.[22] In addition, the 1969 hockey riots used to increase military control, which only sparked more anger.[23] A theory, supported by historians like H. Gordon Skilling, even claims that the USSR planned the riots as a “provocation” to promote Soviet interests in Czechoslovakia. However, most historians dismiss this “provocation theory” as a conspiracy.[24] Tuma argues that “evidence” supporting the theory, including “testimonies” and “pre-prepared piles of paving stones”, were either heresy or explained by preexisting conditions such as frequent sidewalk repairs.[25] Regardless, there is general consensus that the violence “helped the Kremlin escalate pressure” on Czechoslovakia, deteriorating relations.[26]
While the hockey riots raised tensions, there were no tanks this time. The 1960’s ice hockey rivalry between the USSR and Czechoslovakia demonstrated the role of sports as a safe avenue for expression genuine opinions regardless of barriers. Although the tangible impact rivalry on Soviet Czechoslovak relations was ultimately limited, the dichotomy between the conciliatory official documents and violent stands demonstrates that looking at sports and other aspects of popular culture could provide valuable insight into the complexities of Cold War relations
[1] Buckel Bart, “Nationalism, Mass Politics, and Sport: Cold War Case Studies at Seven Degrees,” (Master’s Thesis, Naval Postgraduat School, 2008), 52
[2] ibid
[3] ibid, 53
[4] Mikhail Prozumenschikov, “Soviet- Czechoslovak Ice Hockey Politics,” in The (Intercommunist) Cold War on Ice: Soviet- Czechoslovak Ice Hockey Politics 1967- 1969, ed. Christian F. Ostermann (Washington DC: Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars, 2014), 91
[5] Rachel Applebaum, “The Friendship Project: Socialist Internationalism in the USSR and Czechoslovakia in the 1950’s and 1960’s,” Slavic Review 74, 3 (2015), 489
[6] ibid, 515
[7] Tuma, “Hockey Events and the Fall of Dubcek,” 15
[8] Otakar Rytír, memorandum, March 13, 1968, in Informal Remarks By Czechoslovak Chief Of General Staff, Gen. Otakar Rytír, At a Confidential Meeting of General Staff Officials, Prague
[9] Tuma, “Hockey Events and the Fall of Dubcek,” 16
[10] ibid, 18
[11] Prozumenschikov, “Soviet- Czechoslovak Ice Hockey Politics,” 92
[12] ibid, 93
[13] ibid, 98
[14] Prozumenschikov, “Soviet- Czechoslovak Ice Hockey Politics,” 109
[15] ibid, 92
[16] ibid, 109
[17] ibid, 104
[18] Tuma, “Hockey Events and the Fall of Dubcek,” 23
[19] Prozumenschikov, “Soviet- Czechoslovak Ice Hockey Politics,” 105
[20] S. Chervonenko memorandum to Konstantin Rusakov, April 1, 1967, in Cable from the Soviet Embassy in Prague about Soviet-Czechoslovak Tensions, April 1967
[21] Czechoslovakian Communist Party, memorandum, March 31, 1967, in Intra-party Information Concerning Public Response to USSR-Czechoslovakia Match at the Ice-hockey World Championship in Vienna
[22] Tuma, “Hockey Events and the Fall of Dubcek,” 13
[23] John Soares, “Cold War, Hot Ice: International Ice Hockey, 1947–1980,” Journal of Sports History 34, 2 (2007), 212
[24] Tuma, “Hockey Events and the Fall of Dubcek,” 28
[25] ibid
[26] ibid
