Hinduism

Week 2/3

• The oldest of the five studied — dating back to 3000BCE.
• Approx 800 million Hindus — majority live on the Indian subcontinent.

Five main phases of Hinduism:

• Proto-induism

Dates approx 3000BCE. A highly organized civilization (The Bronze-Age people) arose, lasting more than 1500 years.

Two main cities located in modern day Pakistan.

Decline of this civilization is unknown. Possibly invasion by other civilization, migration and death.

The area was then settled by Aryans.

Influenced early Hinduism. Particularly the importance given to water, fertility, phalluses and figures in lotus position — similar to the Hindu god, Shiva.

Archaeologists have found artifacts suggesting these people worshiped some form of feminine divinity.

• Vedism

Vedism is the religion of the Aryans.

A strong influence on Hinduism tradition.

Some scholars believe they arrived approx 1700BCE — possibly soviet, central Asian and Nordic.

Others, 1000-1800BCE — western Asia and the Mediterranean.

Pastoral nomads — central role to gods of nature reflected in sacred hymns — Rig Veda.

The Vedas a large body of text that appease the gods, used in sacrifices and rituals supported by mantras.

Example - Indra, the god of lightning and thunderstorms was thought to control the heavens and provide the earth with rain.

• Brahmanism

A pre-classical phase.

The Vedas provided framework for development.

Marks the shift from religion centered and ritual observance to a more speculative and contemplative form of life.

• Classical Dharma-Bhaktism

Approx 200BCE to 1100CE.

Hindus developed strong moral ethos (dharma) and a new temple base.

Emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to gods and goddesses, devotional worship (puja).

Each god assumed a personal face and assumed a role in running the cosmos.

Vishnu and Shiva became elevated to status of “genuine god”.

The female personification of divinity strongly emerged.

Moral self discipline became increasingly important (yoga).

• Medieval and Modern Hinduism

From 1100CE, including the arrival of the British in India.

Under control of Muslim Mughals then British imperialism Hinduism incorporated classical beliefs with forms of Islam and Christianity.

Mahatma Ghandi is from this era of Hinduism and contributed to strengthening Hinduism.

Resulting in India’s independence from colonialism.

Sacred Texts

The Vedas are author less texts and are not in the form of a “religious book” such as in Christianity and Islam. Hinduism does not feel the need to assume a “creator”.

Upanishads, Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata are scriptures compromising of rituals and worship, daily outlines, observances, codes of law, moral and ethical teachings, higher principles guide, death, life-after, yoga, wisdom, self-realization.

Karma and Rebirth

From the Brahmanical period of Hinduism onwards Karma and Reincarnation (rebirth) have been two integral concepts.

Karma — every action meets its own reaction.

This may be immediately, short-term or long-term. The belief that merits and demerits accrue in the form of actions — essentially good and bad karma. A balancing act.

Cycle of death and birth = Samsara

Karma is collected (for lack of a better word) over many life times and continues in a cycle until one attains liberation — Moksha.

Obtaining Moksha means that the individual has been successful in casting off Maya — reality — and has reached the highest truth. Resulting in oneness with Brahman (ultimate reality).

Heaven -Svarga, the dwelling place for gods and those of have obtained Moksha.

The Caste System

• During what period did the idea of karma appear in Hindu thought?

During the Brahmanical period.

• What is caste (varna)?

A ranking system of the four classes of society. The first three, twice born.

Brahmin — Priests, teachers, advisers to rulers.

Kshatriya — Kings, princes, warriors.

Vaishya — “the people”, agriculturalists, merchants, traders.

Shudra — (Servants of the three upper castes, not twice-born) gardeners, musicians, artists, barbers

• Who are the ‘outcastes’?

Those excluded even by Shudras. Street sweepers, leather workers, all non hindus.

• What is the connection between caste and karma?

One’s position in the caste is determined by, past deeds — karma.Through rebirth and “good” karma it is possible to move through out the caste’s and reach “moksha” a place in eternal heaven.

• What is a jati?

A sub-caste.

The Laws of Manu

• Why is it considered better to incompletely discharge the duties of one’s own caste, as opposed to completely discharging the duties of another?

One that lives according to the laws of another caste is instantly excluded from their own caste.

• What are the proper means of subsistence for a Brahmin?

Sacrificing for others, teaching, and accepting gifts from pure men.

• Under what circumstances may a Brahmin perform the duties of a lower caste? What is the result of performing such duties?

When a Brahmin is unable to subsist by the laws of the caste they may live according to the laws of lower ranked caste (Kshatriya and Vishya.They are to be careful not to pursue agriculture that harms and depends on others. It is seen to pollute a Brahmin, lowering status.

• Why do you think a king counts as a Kshatriya rather than a Brahmin?

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• What role do Kshatriya play in maintaining the social order?

Those is the Kshatriya caste order and compel Viysha and Shudras to perform the work prescribed for them.

• What role is assigned to the Vishya?

“the people”, agriculturalists, merchants, traders.

• What is the reward for a well conducted life as a Shudra?

Elevation of caste in this world and the next.

• What is Manu’s summary of the law for all four castes?

If everyone takes their assigned place in the hierarchy and discharges their particular duty then a balance will be maintained, both socially and cosmologically — in order to protect the universe.

Stages of Life

• Who are the ‘twice-born’?

The upper three castes.

• What are the four stages?

Student, Householder,Retirement — Ascetic.

• Which groups of people do these four stages apply to?

The upper three castes.

• Why is the fourth stage ‘not a stage’? (p. 84)

Because it offers a different course of life through rigorous discipline. One may become ascetic at any time, its purpose is to acheive detachment from life. Any caste may become ascetic.

• What explanation is given as to why a student should show respect for teachers and parents?

All that needs to be done by man is accomplished and to increase spiritual merit.

• Why is the householder stage superior to the other three ashramas?

Because others are supported by the householder with gifts of sacred knowledge and food.

• What are the key differences between life as a forest-dweller and life as a wandering ascetic?

Forest Dweller — twice born, lived according to the law, when wrinkled and white haired may abandon all belongings and go into the forest.

Wandering Ascetic — After having passed the third part of life, may live as an ascetic in the forest. Studied vedas. Gains bliss after death. Direct his mind to final liberation.

• What is the aim of a sannyasin (aspiring world renouncer)?

Vedic rituals are given up, everything/everyone is left behind, to focus on the final goal of realization of atman.

In a special ritual, one discards the sacred thread that was worn since initiation, designating one as a member of the twice-born castes.

After this, one belongs to no caste and can wander anywhere without fear of ritual pollution.

Goals of Life

The ideal Hindu life is oriented around a set of major goals or purusharthas.

• What is the goal of dharma and how does one fulfil it?

Dharma is the regular pursuit of worthy conduct and moral stature. It is pursued through character or virtue traits — examples — tolerance, self-control.

• What is the goal of artha and how is it achieved?

Artha is economic and political success.

• What is kama and in what sense is this one of life’s goals?

Kama is pleasure. To enjoy life and seek pleasure and human fulfillment.

• Why do you think dharma takes precedence over artha and kama?

Because artha and kama can only be achieved through successful pursuance of dharma.

• What is moksha?

Moksha is “release”. To be released from human condition.

• In what sense does moksha differ from the first three goals?

The first three goals pursue fulfillment, whereas moksha is release from the human condition.

Hinduism As Renunciation Of This World

• What is the difference between a ‘logical synthesis’ and a ‘viable amalgam’?

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• What are the two ways Hinduism has of combining the world-affirming and world-negating attitudes?

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Traditional Hindu thought recognizes four different broad paths take in the quest for release from this-worldly existence. These are:

• Jnana: the way of knowledge
• Raja: the way of mental concentration, which both asceticism and yoga.
• Bhakti: the way of devotion to a personal God, usually Vishnu, Shiva or one of their avatars, wives or sons
• Karma: the way of works, that is good deeds or right action

Practices and Worship

Four of sixteen important rites.

• Birth. Special care is taken with the horoscope for the newborn infant, as it also suggests suitable syllables for the child’s naming process. A special act of worship is performed by many families, which has its parallel in the christening service among Christians.
• Initiation or threading ceremony. In India this was of great importance for brahmin boys in particular, as it indicates their readiness for religious education.
• Marriage (vivaha). Time and place are fixed according to the religious calendar and the ceremony itself could take three to seven days to complete. The elephant-headed god Ganesha is first invoked, followed by Lakshmi, the goddess of welfare and prosperity; garlands are exchanged and offerings are made to Agni, the god of fire, in a central fire-altar especially created for the purpose, around which the bride and bridegroom walk in unison taking seven decisive steps (satapadi) each of which relate to the seven vows or pledges toward sharing of food, strength, wealth, food fortune, children, auspicious seasons and everlasting friendship. Prayers for the presiding deities in the respective astrological houses of the newly wedded are offered, followed by a banquet.
• Last rites (anteyesthi). Hindus believe that human corpses should be cremated, not buried. Traditional rituals involve placing the corpse inside a sandalwood pyre and dousing it with ghee or clarified butter before setting it alight in the accompaniment of Vedic mantras and other chants from sacred texts that supposedly facilitate the smooth departure of the deceased individual’s ‘soul’ to the celestial regions or the hereafter. On or after the third day of the cremation, the ashes are scattered in one of the holy rivers.

Karma and Rebirth

Transmigration = Rebirth

Rebirth is the passage of a dead persons soul into another body at or after death.

• How might the doctrine of karma act as an incentive to right conduct?

To achieve merit toward karma, as the ultimate goal in achieving moksha.It is believed one is in control of their own future.

• Why does Hiriyanna think the doctrine of karma reconciles one to one’s lot in life? Do you think such reconciliation is necessarily a good thing?
• Does the doctrine of karma really conduce to charity in judging others, as Hiriyanna suggests?
• Summarise the three views of the relation of morality and ritual that Hiriyanna surveys in Part I. (pp. 169–73)

1. Argues against rebirth because of lack of memories from previous lives
2. Without a body (after perishing at death) what can make my future life my life?
3. How can it be just to punish me for something done in a past life, of which I have no memory?

• What definition of freedom does Hiriyanna offer?
• What is ‘fatalism’ and how does karma escape fatalism?
• How does Hiriyanna argue to show that ‘transmigration’ (i.e. rebirth) is a necessary corollary to karma?
• What does it mean to say that every deed has the ‘double result’ of producing both phala and samskara? (p. 177)

Phala = direct result

Samskara = establishes in a disposition to repeat the same deed in future.

• Which do you think is the strongest of the possible objections against rebirth? (pp. 180–2)