Games & Virtual Worlds Series

Affordances, Game Dynamics, Gameplay & Core Loops

Designing Games & Interactive Stories

Michael Filimowicz, PhD

Published in

Narrative and New Media

15 min readJan 4, 2023

Affordances

Affordances are the actions that an object or environment allows or invites a person to perform. They are a way of understanding how people interact with objects and environments, and are an important concept in the design of both physical and digital artifacts.

Board game designers can benefit greatly from understanding the concept of affordances since it allows them to make meaningful and natural interactions between game pieces and players. Affordances are the opportunities for action that a person or thing is considered to provide. Designers can influence players’ comprehension and choices by taking advantage of the affordances of game components like cards, tokens, and game boards.

Affordances that are easy to understand and use make the game’s rules and mechanics more approachable, shortening the learning curve. In addition, by providing players with intuitive clues and possibilities for exploration inside the game’s design area, affordances improve immersion, engagement, and strategic thinking. The concept of affordances allows designers to make board games that are accessible to players of varying skill levels.

In the context of video game design, affordances can be thought of as the actions that a game system or interface allows the player to perform. For example, a button on a controller might afford pressing, a door in a game might afford opening, and a character in a game might afford jumping.

Some examples of affordances in games include:

A controller stick that affords movement of a character on the screen
A button on a controller that affords firing a weapon
An in-game door that affords opening and entering a new area
A platform in a platformer game that affords jumping on and using to reach higher areas

By designing game elements with clear affordances, game designers can help players understand how to interact with the game and what actions are possible within the game world. This can enhance the player’s enjoyment of the game by making it more intuitive and easier to play.

Sometimes these affordances become very widely known in the cultural world of games so that they are almost like a lingua franca, such as using the WASD keys on a computer keyboard for Forward, Left, Back and Right movement in a virtual space.

Game Dynamics

Game dynamics are the underlying systems and mechanics that drive the gameplay of a game. They can include things like the rules of the game, the ways in which players interact with each other and the game world, and the feedback that the game provides to players.

One important aspect of game dynamics is the way in which they incentivize player behavior. This means that the game provides rewards or incentives for certain types of play, encouraging players to engage with the game in specific ways.

For example, a game might provide players with points or other in-game rewards for completing certain tasks or achieving certain goals. This can incentivize players to focus on these tasks and goals, as they know that they will be rewarded for doing so. Similarly, a game might provide players with social recognition or status for achieving certain milestones, which can incentivize players to compete with each other and strive for higher levels of play.

Game dynamics are a powerful tool for shaping player behavior and encouraging players to engage with the game in specific ways. By designing game dynamics that incentivize certain types of play, game designers can create engaging and rewarding gameplay experiences for players.

Strategies are not the same as game dynamics, yet game dynamics can inspire player strategies. The dynamics of a game are what cause it to progress in its customary manner and along its signature lines of play. A player’s strategy is the method they devise to improve their standing in the game. If a player is smart, they will use the game’s dynamics to their advantage, and this will lead to a predictable and typical set of decisions.

The mechanics of a system can be controlled by the players or by the system itself. Many of the system-driven processes at play in games like football, baseball, bobsledding and golf come straight from the fabric of the universe. In real-world physical games, the laws of physics place severe limitations on how high a player may jump, how far an object can be kicked or struck, how fast a downhill vehicular doodad can go, and so on.

Systems Dynamics

In video games, hardware handles things like resolution, latency, and the media sensorium, whereas software handles things like algorithmic logic, constantly changing variables, and the database.

Board games have a state — the game state (video games have this as well) — that is constantly being updated as players take turns manipulating actual pieces and taking actions. All of the game’s action and decision making comes down to the players, though, and are not system driven — though, one can certainly imagine a system-driven component to board games, such as by flipping over an hourglass when the grains run out. This would be an example of an analog system driving game events. Video games generally have elements of both systemic and player agency.

One way to approach game design is via the lens of systems dynamics, which involves viewing games as machines and thinking about how their components interact to generate play patterns. Systems dynamics argues that instead of examining the physical objects themselves, we should examine the processes and relationships that occur between them.

The MDA Framework

The MDA framework (short for Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics) is a model for understanding and designing games that was developed by game designers Robin Hunicke, Marc LeBlanc, and Robert Zubek. The MDA framework is based on the idea that games can be understood in terms of three key components: mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics.

Mechanics refer to the underlying systems and rules that govern the gameplay of a game. These can include things like the actions that players can perform, the goals of the game, and the feedback that the game provides to players.

Dynamics refer to the way that the mechanics of a game interact and create emergent gameplay. This can include the strategies and tactics that players use, the way that players interact with each other and the game world, and the way that the game evolves over time.

Aesthetics refer to the emotional responses that players have to the gameplay experience. These can include things like enjoyment, excitement, challenge, and immersion.

The MDA framework suggests that game designers can use these three components to create a desired gameplay experience for players. By understanding the mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics of a game, designers can create games that are enjoyable, engaging, and satisfying to play.

Gameplay

Gameplay refers to the interactive experience of playing a game. It encompasses all of the actions that players can perform within a game, as well as the responses of the game to those actions. Gameplay can include things like solving puzzles, defeating enemies, exploring game worlds, and interacting with other players.

Gameplay is an important aspect of the overall experience of playing a game, as it determines what players can do within the game and how they can interact with it. Good gameplay is often characterized by a sense of enjoyment, challenge, and engagement, and can be influenced by factors such as the mechanics of the game, the game’s rules and goals, and the feedback that the game provides to players.

Gameplay is central to the experience of playing a game, and is constantly referred to in the design and evaluation of games.

Emergent Gameplay

Emergent gameplay refers to the unexpected and unplanned ways in which players interact with a game and create their own experiences within it. Emergent gameplay can arise from the combination of a game’s mechanics and the player’s creativity and ingenuity.

Emergent gameplay is often characterized by unexpected and spontaneous moments that arise from the player’s interactions with the game. These moments can be both positive and negative, and can include things like finding a new and creative solution to a problem, discovering a hidden aspect of the game, or breaking the game in some way.

Emergent gameplay can be an important part of the appeal of a game, as it allows players to have unique and personalized experiences within the game. However, it can also be difficult for game designers to predict and control, as it depends on the player’s actions and creativity.

Emergent gameplay is related to the idea of dynamic systems in games, and refers to the way that players can create their own experiences and interactions within a game.

The Quake mechanic known as “Rocket Jumping” is a prime example of emergent gameplay. Though it wasn’t programmed that way, players found and exploited an emergent interplay between the weapon and mobility systems, and now it’s widely known as something that can be done thanks to how the game’s affordances interact with each other.

You cannot predict emergent behavior because if you could, it would be a game dynamic and not emergent gameplay. In this sense, emergence refers to a phenomenon that arises when players combine aspects that you design for them to engage with, but which you did not foresee them doing because of how the game’s rules, systems, and/or affordances work.

The Game Core

The game core is a term used to refer to the essential elements of a game that define its gameplay and identity. The game core typically includes things like the game’s mechanics, its central goals and objectives, and its main themes and ideas.

The game core helps to define the gameplay experience that a game will provide to players. A strong game core, which can usually be expressed in a single sentence, can provide a clear and cohesive gameplay experience, while a weak or poorly defined game core can result in a disjointed or confusing experience for players.

In the design process, it is often important for game designers to identify and focus on the game core, as it helps to ensure that the game stays true to its intended gameplay experience. This can involve making design decisions that support and enhance the game core, while also being mindful of any elements that might detract from it.

The game core is a way of understanding the essential elements that define a game and its gameplay experience.

A Statement of Purpose can be a useful way to express the game core. The goal here is to simplify your idea down to its core concepts rather than becoming bogged down by all the extra stuff you think would be entertaining to include in the game.

Some examples of good single sentence game core statements (or alternately, statements of purpose) for popular board games might be:

“In Catan, players compete to build settlements, trade resources, and strategically expand their territory to become the most prosperous community on the island.”

“In Pandemic, players collaborate as a team of specialists to prevent the spread of deadly diseases across the globe, utilizing unique abilities and strategic planning to find cures and save humanity.”

“In Ticket to Ride, players aim to connect cities through railway routes, strategically collecting and managing colored train cards to complete their routes and score the most points.”

When deciding whether or not to add, keep, or remove features, one approach to do so is to examine whether or not they are contributing to the game’s core, which is defined by the game’s statement of purpose. You should only add things that strengthen the core, and get rid of things that don’t.

Not only video games, but many other types of media also have central mission statements or statements of purpose. For instance (thank you Adobe Express, “30 Companies with Famous Brand Slogans & Taglines”:

Disneyland: “The happiest place on Earth.”

BMW: “The ultimate driving machine.”

Nike: “Just do it.”

Old Spice: “The original. If your grandfather hadn’t worn it, you wouldn’t exist.”

Samsung: “Do what you can’t.”

Uber: “Move the way you want.”

The statement of purpose serves a similar function to a film’s tagline — e.g. Chicken Run, “escape or die frying” — in that it keeps you focused on the game’s core premise and artistic direction.

One way to craft a solid statement is to leave blanks and then fill them in.

_________________ is what or who you are.

You’re currently living in a _________________ .

At its heart, a game is an opportunity to _________________ .

A real-world player must have some kind of game representation (the first line). Since there must be a setting for the events of a story, the connection between the two is readily apparent (the second line). A game’s aesthetics (the visual design) not only directly fill out the storyworld, but also subtly convey themes and reinforce the imagined history. It allows gamers to put themselves in a fictional world where they can practice their abilities and work toward their objectives (the third line).

Looking at a game’s core from the perspective of Achieving Success! is another option. Reflect for a moment — what constitutes success for you? Since our primary motivation in games is to succeed (albeit in digital sandbox games, our objective may simply be to create an interesting world), Success is a helpful lens through which to examine games.

What does winning (in your game) look like from the perspective of a landscaper? Is it catching lawn pests? Do you want to expand your business and dominate a whole suburb? Help with climate change by only using green methods on the green? Improve old city parks by traveling back in time to kill their designers, first person shooter style? Having a clear goal for the character’s development gives the player something to strive for during the game.

Core Loops

The game core loop is a term used to describe the central gameplay mechanics of a game and the way that they repeat and build upon each other to create an engaging gameplay experience.

A loop is how a game determines the results of an action and feeds that result back to a player. Players are usually the initiators of loops but, in video games especially, characters may also initiate their own loops. An enemy taking a shot at you is trying to win, just as you are.

Loops all have the same structure: The player performs an action, the results of that action are determined according to rules, states of different resources in the environment are updated according to the outcome. The loop closes with one of two results, win or loss, and the player may have the option to take further actions. (whatgamesare.com/loop)

The game core loop typically includes three main elements:

The player’s actions: This refers to the things that the player can do within the game, such as exploring the game world, interacting with other players, and completing tasks or challenges.

The game’s response: This refers to the way that the game reacts to the player’s actions, such as providing feedback or rewards, presenting new challenges or opportunities, or advancing the story or gameplay.

The player’s motivation: This refers to the reasons that the player has for continuing to play the game, such as the desire to progress through the game’s story, achieve specific goals or milestones, or compete with other players.

The game core loop helps to define the gameplay experience that a game will provide to players. A strong game core loop can create an engaging and rewarding gameplay experience that keeps players coming back for more, while a weak or poorly designed game core loop can result in a repetitive or uninteresting experience.

Repetitive gameplay elements, which game designer Ian Schreiber categorizes into setup, play, and resolution phases, generate a narrative arc in the game’s flow.

For instance, stabbing orcs over and over again in a video game wouldn’t be the aim; rather, it would be one step toward achieving the game’s overarching goals, such as gathering experience, moving on in the story, or learning something new.

A common metaphor for core loops is that of a spiral, which can be thought of as both circular and linear, with a linear progression emerging from the repeated loops. The idea of a spiral represents growth and improvement.

Such fundamental cycles form the backbone of all life.

Education is a ‘loopy’ system because at each level, a student is required to do many of the same things as those in lower levels: attend classes, interact with classmates, participate in extracurricular activities, earn a certificate or degree, be evaluated on their performance, and devote a significant portion of their waking hours to schoolwork at home. These drills aren’t only circular and boring; they also help you make progress along certain vectors, in this case, your knowledge and ability.

Actions to take, rewards to earn, and advancing in a game all define its central loops, just as they do in real life. As one’s Skill level rises, so does the level of difficulty — wouldn’t you know it, life just keeps getting harder!

Repetition of the central loop allows players to hone their skills and become more proficient at the game, which is frequently the driving force behind why people keep coming back.

The core progression loop is a term used to describe the way that a game’s mechanics and systems support and encourage the player’s progress through the game. The core progression loop typically includes three main elements:

The player’s actions: This refers to the things that the player can do within the game, such as exploring the game world, interacting with other players, and completing tasks or challenges.

The player’s progression: This refers to the way that the player’s actions and the game’s response contribute to the player’s overall progress through the game. This can include things like leveling up, unlocking new content or abilities, or advancing through the game’s story.

The core progression loop helps define the player’s experience of progression and growth within the game. A well-designed core progression loop can provide a sense of accomplishment and progression that keeps players engaged and motivated to continue playing.

Bibliography & Further Reading

A Game Design Vocabulary: Exploring the Foundational Principles Behind Good Game Design by Anna Anthropy and Naomi Clark
A Theory of Fun for Game Design by Raph Koster
Advanced Game Design: A Systems Approach by Michael Sellers
An Introduction to Game Studies by Frans Mayra
Basics of Game Design by Michael Moore
Blood, Sweat, and Pixels: The Triumphant, Turbulent Stories Behind How Video Games Are Made Blood, Sweat, and Pixels: The Triumphant, Turbulent Stories Behind How Video Games Are Made by Jason Schreier
Board Game Design Advice: From the Best in the World vol 1 by Gabe Barrett
Building Blocks of Tabletop Game Design: an Encyclopedia Of Mechanisms by Geoffrey Engelstein and Isaac Shalev
Character Development and Storytelling for Games by Lee Sheldon
Chris Crawford on Game Design by Chris Crawford
Clockwork Game Design by Keith Burgun
Elements of Game Design by Robert Zubek
Fundamentals of Game Design by Ernest Adams
Fundamentals of Puzzle and Casual Game Design by Ernest Adams
Game Design Foundations by Brenda Romero
Game Design Workshop by Tracy Fullerton
Game Mechanics: Advanced Game Design by Ernest Adams and Joris Dormans
Game Writing: Narrative Skills for Videogames edited by Chris Bateman
Games, Design and Play: A detailed approach to iterative game design by Colleen Macklin and John Sharp
Introduction to Game Systems Design by Dax Gazaway
Kobold Guide to Board Game Design by Mike Selinker, David Howell, et al
Kobold’s Guide to Worldbuilding edited by Janna Silverstein
Level Up! The Guide to Great Video Game Design, 2nd Edition by Scott Rogers
Narrating Space / Spatializing Narrative: Where Narrative Theory and Geography Meet by Marie-Laure Ryan, Kenneth Foote, et al.
Narrative Theory: A Critical Introduction by Kent Puckett
Narrative Theory: Core Concepts and Critical Debates by David Herman, James Phelan, et al.
Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Fourth Edition by Mieke Bal
Practical Game Design by Adam Kramarzewski and Ennio De Nucci
Procedural Storytelling in Game Design by Tanya X. Short and Tarn Adams
Professional Techniques for Video Game Writing by Wendy Despain
Rules of Play by Salen and Zimmerman
Storyworlds Across Media: Toward a Media-Conscious Narratology (Frontiers of Narrative) by Marie-Laure Ryan, Jan-Noël Thon, et al
Tabletop Game Design for Video Game Designers by Ethan Ham
The Art of Game Design, 3rd Edition by Jesse Schell
The Board Game Designer’s Guide: The Easy 4 Step Process to Create Amazing Games That People Can’t Stop Playing by Joe Slack
The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative by H. Porter Abbott
The Grasshopper, by Bernard Suits
The Routledge Companion to Video Game Studies by Bernard Perron and Mark J.P. Wolf
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory by David Herman
The Ultimate Guide to Video Game Writing and Design by Flint Dille & John Zuur Platten
Unboxed: Board Game Experience and Design by Gordon Calleja
Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques by Evan Skolnick
Writing for Video Game Genres: From FPS to RPG edited by Wendy Despain
Writing for Video Games by Steve Ince
100 Principles of Game Design by DESPAIN