Games & Virtual Worlds Series

Prototyping, Playtesting, Iteration & Fun

Designing Games & Interactive Stories

Michael Filimowicz, PhD

Published in

Narrative and New Media

16 min readJan 4, 2023

Prototyping

Along the way of designing a game, you will get to create many awful looking scribbly draft documents that serve the purpose of exploring ideas in ways that are essentially Fast, Cheap and Disposable, or alternately, Cheap, Ugly and Fast (there are a few different prototyping philosophies but they are pretty similar) — this scribbly mess is the hallmark of a true prototyping design processes.

You don’t want to constantly try to make beautiful precious art with each step along the way to designing your game. You want to perfect the game concept first, and make it pretty to look at later. If the core rules don’t work, then adding extra rules on top of it will generally not make it work. Get the basics working first, before you start adding complexity.

Prototyping is an important part of the game development process that involves creating a rough, working version of a game. The purpose of prototyping is to test and refine the gameplay mechanics and to identify and resolve any issues with the game design before investing significant time and resources into the final product.

Here is a general overview of the process of prototyping games:

Define the goals of the prototype: The first step in prototyping is to define the goals of the prototype. This might include testing specific gameplay mechanics, gathering feedback from playtesters, or identifying any problems with the game design.

Create a rough version of the game: The next step is to create a rough version of the game, which might be as simple as a paper prototype or a series of sketches. This prototype should be functional enough to test the gameplay mechanics and gather feedback.

Test the prototype: Once the prototype is complete, it should be tested by playtesters to gather feedback and identify any issues. This can be done through playtesting sessions or by gathering feedback from a smaller group of players.

Analyze the feedback: After the prototype has been tested, the feedback should be analyzed to identify any issues or areas for improvement.

Iterate on the prototype: Based on the feedback, the prototype should be iterated on by making changes and improvements to the gameplay mechanics and design. This process should be repeated until the prototype is refined and ready for the final product.

Information gleaned from testing prototypes can be sorted in a number of ways, including: things to cut, things to add, problems with the current design, new ideas based on testing, new features based on testing, a potential work-around for development, potential changes to the product’s design, and so on.

In order to put the game’s concepts to the test, the initial prototyping session will focus on making a simple playable region. The goal is to determine whether or not the concept is entertaining, feasible, or even worth further exploration.

Paper vs Digital Prototyping

Paper prototypes and digital prototypes are two types of prototypes that can be used during the game design process. A paper prototype is a rough version of a game that is created using paper and pencils or other physical materials, while a digital prototype is a rough version of a game that is created using digital tools, such as game engines or programming languages.

There are several differences between paper and digital prototypes:

Ease of creation: Paper prototypes are generally easier and faster to create than digital prototypes, as they do not require any specialized software or programming skills.

Flexibility: Paper prototypes are more flexible than digital prototypes, as they can be easily modified and iterated on by simply drawing or writing on the paper. Digital prototypes, on the other hand, often require more time and effort to change.

Level of detail: Digital prototypes can be more detailed and realistic than paper prototypes, as they can incorporate graphics, sound, and other multimedia elements.

Playtesting: Paper prototypes are generally better suited for playtesting with large groups of people, as they can be easily shared and played by multiple players simultaneously. Digital prototypes, on the other hand, are typically better suited for smaller playtesting groups or individual playtesters.

Both paper and digital prototypes have their own strengths and can be useful at different stages of the game design process.

Prototyping Materials

There are many craft materials that can be used when making paper and disposable game prototypes, including:

Cardstock is a type of heavy paper that is thicker and more durable than regular printer paper. It is a good material for making game prototypes, as it is strong enough to withstand handling and playtesting.

Construction paper is a type of colored paper that is thick and durable, making it suitable for making game prototypes.

Markers can be used to draw and label game elements on paper prototypes.

Scissors can be used to cut out game components and other elements from paper.

Glue can be used to attach game components and other elements to paper prototypes.

Dice can be used as randomizers in tabletop games.

Measuring tools, such as rulers and compasses, can be useful for creating precise game components.

Other materials that can be useful for making paper prototypes include tape, pencils, pens, and other art supplies.

Using parts from several board games purchased from thrift stores and garage sales to use as spare parts and raw materials

Get the basics down first. A game’s core mechanics are its bare bones. They are the defining features of the game, the things that could not be changed or removed without fundamentally altering the game’s identity.

The core mechanics of a game serve as the game’s driving force. They are what actually make the game playable. The actions and events that take place turn after turn are shaped by the game’s primary rules and mechanics.

In fact, if you build extra rules on an unstable foundation, the real underlying problems in your design could be obscured! Something might seem wrong, but if there are a lot of systems and resources and game objects it can be hard to tell if you’re experiencing a problem with the core mechanics, or the balance of a particular resource, or the design of the map, or something else.

— (Schreiber, The Early Stages of the Design Process, 2009)

Playtesting

Board game designers can learn a lot from playtesting their games with real players to see what works and what doesn’t, where improvements can be made, and where the game is lacking. During playtesting, designers can learn about any problems, rule ambiguities, or imbalances that may affect the game’s enjoyment or flow by monitoring how players engage, respond, and make comments.

By putting the game’s mechanics, components, and rules through their paces during playtesting, developers can make sure that the final product is one that players will enjoy. Because of this, designers may evaluate the game’s ease of use, clarity of rules, strategic depth, and entertainment factor, all of which contribute to a final product that is more polished and successful.

If I had asked people what they wanted, they would have said faster horses.

— Henry Ford

There are several different types of playtesting that can be used when designing a game, including:

The Kleenex test is a type of playtesting that involves gathering feedback from a small group of players who have not previously played the game. The name of the test comes from the idea that the feedback from these players should be used to quickly and easily identify problems with the game, similar to how a tissue is used to quickly and easily wipe away a problem.

Blackbox testing is a type of playtesting that involves testing the game without any knowledge of the inner workings of the game. This type of testing is used to identify any problems with the gameplay mechanics or overall design of the game.

Whitebox testing is a type of playtesting that involves testing the game with knowledge of the inner workings of the game. This type of testing is used to identify any problems with the code or other technical aspects of the game.

Solo testing is a type of playtesting that involves a single player testing the game. This type of testing is useful for identifying any issues with the game that might be missed during group playtesting sessions.

Load testing is a type of playtesting that involves testing the game under heavy load conditions, such as when many players are playing the game simultaneously. This type of testing is used to identify any issues with the game’s performance or scalability.

You do all this to make it as enjoyable as possible. In other words, it’s not just supposed to be some kind of tedious grunt labor, of the kind Henry Ford was fond of!

Fun

Don’t assume what’s ‘fun’ because fun can be complicated. Various people have various definitions of what constitutes fun. What even is the definition of fun? That which you consider to be fun may not be so for me, and vice versa.

The word “fun” shouldn’t be used naively, as though its meaning were self-evident. Some people would consider sunbathing a worthwhile aesthetic pursuit, while others would find it boring and cancerous. Exactly what sort of “fun” are you hoping to create? For whom is this game supposed to be “fun?” Since the concept of fun is convoluted, it’s explored separately below.

You shouldn’t feel pressured to act on every bit of data generated during playtesting. When you feel it is necessary, you can still put your designer’s instincts above those of the general public. You are looking for responses and details rather than mandates to be carried out. The people you enlist to playtest your game are not likely to be a good representation of your intended demographic or market; they are just the most accessible participants.

The playability of a game refers to how simple it is to pick up and play. It should be easy for newcomers to join without disrupting the flow of the game, in addition to being fun and sane. It’s important to identify potential roadblocks for new players and clear out any ambiguities that may exist.

What is fun? Luckily, this is not a psychology class so we don’t have to go too deep into the concept of fun. For now, let’s make gentle toe-dipping gestures into Fun Waters and orient ourselves with a few general ideas that may match your own intuitive conceptions of what counts as fun.

The Limitations Of Fun

Weaver’s Law: The quality of an entertainment is inversely proportional to the awareness of time engaged in it.

— Chris Weaver

During game design, one of the main challenges is defining what counts as “fun” and ensuring that the game is enjoyable for the intended audience. Some problems that can occur around the concept of fun in game design include:

Subjectivity: Different people have different opinions about what is fun, so it can be difficult to create a game that is universally enjoyable.

Player motivations: Players are motivated by different things, and what is fun for one player may not be fun for another. For example, some players might enjoy fast-paced action games, while others might prefer slower-paced strategy games.

Balancing difficulty: Finding the right balance of difficulty is important for ensuring that a game is enjoyable. If a game is too easy, it can be boring, but if it is too difficult, it can be frustrating.

Replayability: Creating a game that is fun to play multiple times can be challenging, as players may become bored with the same gameplay elements after repeated plays.

Accessibility: Ensuring that a game is accessible and enjoyable for players of all skill levels can be a challenge, as it requires finding a balance between providing a challenging experience for experienced players while still being accessible to newer players.

Defining what counts as fun in game design is a complex process that requires considering a wide range of factors and continually testing and refining the game to ensure that it is enjoyable for the intended audience.

The impacts of the Covid global shutdowns have led to extensive research into the science of fun. In his research (“What Is The Underlying Psychology of Having Fun? Psychology Today), psychologist Travis Tae explains what makes life enjoyable:

My research on fun shows that although a myriad of activities — traveling to a new city, riding a roller coaster, meeting old friends, watching a movie, going to a concert, etc. — can be considered fun, the intensity of the fun experience rests on two psychological pillars of hedonic engagement and a sense of liberation. Having fun, in fact, is an experience of liberating engagement.

A state of hedonic engagement features an active involvement and immersion into an activity that is intended for pure enjoyment. For instance, a 39-year-old female respondent from California described her experience at an escape room as, “…wow it was so much fun! We had to work together to solve puzzles to get out of each room. Nothing was TOO hard, and the stories surrounding each piece were really engaging.” Similarly, many others expressed the essence of fun being how the activity itself is engaging in and of itself, rather than for an external goal (or an overemphasis on “winning”).

How many times have we told ourselves or our family and friends, after game night that “it’s not about winning but about having fun?” Indeed, my field interviews with a couple of seasoned blackjack dealers at a Vegas casino expressed that the players and dealers rarely have fun (and is even shunned upon) at a high-stakes table while there’s much more fun and joviality at a $5 table.

Another essential characteristic of fun is the sense of liberation — a temporary release from various internalized and externally imposed restrictions, such as work obligations, parenting, schoolwork, and to add to the list, mask wearing and social distancing. Throughout my research journey, the theme of “letting loose,” “being carefree,” and “getting away from it all,” was a recurring topic within really fun experiences. It became quickly evident that if you want to kill someone’s fun, you can do so by enforcing behavioral and psychological limitations, as the pandemic had done to our lives in the past year or so.

We can experience each of the two pillars — liberation and hedonic engagement — independently of one another. For example, we can feel a strong sense of liberation when paying off that student or personal loan but not necessarily experience fun, while drinking that glass of first-growth Bordeaux may be exhilaratingly enjoyable but not necessarily fun. It’s the combination of hedonic engagement and liberation (e.g., going on a summer vacation to Cancun with your friends or family, after a heavy-laden workload during spring) that makes experiences really fun.

LeBlanc’s Eight Categories of Fun

Marc LeBlanc is a game designer who developed a classification system for fun in games, which he called the “Eight Categories of Fun.” According to LeBlanc, there are eight types of fun that can be found in games:

Sensation refers to the physical sensations that players experience when playing a game, such as the feeling of a controller vibrating in their hands or the rush of adrenaline from a fast-paced action game.

Fantasy refers to the ability of a game to transport players to a different world or reality. This can be achieved through immersive graphics, storylines, and gameplay mechanics.

Narrative refers to the story or plot of a game and the player’s ability to become immersed in it.

Challenge refers to the sense of accomplishment that players feel when they overcome obstacles or complete difficult tasks in a game.

Fellowship refers to the social aspect of gaming and the enjoyment that players get from interacting with other players.

Discovery refers to the sense of exploration and discovery that players can experience when playing a game, such as discovering new areas or mechanics.

Expression refers to the ability of a game to allow players to express themselves creatively, such as through customizing their avatar or creating their own levels or content.

Submission refers to the sense of relaxation or escapism that players can experience when playing a game, such as when they are able to forget about their everyday worries and lose themselves in the game.

LeBlanc’s eight categories of fun are often used as a framework for understanding player motivations and the types of experiences that players seek in games.

You can also try the very practical approach of Scott Rogers’ conception of Un-Fun:

Start with a “fun” idea. As you develop the game, if you find something in the game that is not fun (or un-fun), remove it. After you have removed all the un-fun, all that should be left is the fun.

Koster’s Theory of Fun

Raph Koster is a game designer who has written extensively about the concept of “fun” in video games. According to Koster, fun is not an inherent property of a game, but rather a subjective experience that arises from the interaction between the player and the game.

Koster’s theory of fun is based on the idea that players are driven by a desire to learn and master new things. He argues that the feeling of accomplishment that comes from learning and improving at a game is a major source of fun for players. Koster also suggests that games should be designed to provide a sense of progression and allow players to see their own progress over time.

Other elements of Koster’s theory of fun include the importance of challenge and the role of social interaction in games. Koster argues that games should provide a sense of challenge that is neither too difficult nor too easy for the player, and that social interaction with other players can enhance the enjoyment of the game.

Koster’s theory of fun suggests that the key to creating a fun game is to design it in a way that allows players to learn, improve, and feel a sense of accomplishment, while also providing appropriate levels of challenge and social interaction.

Lazzaro’s Four Keys to Fun

Nicole Lazzaro is a game designer and researcher who has developed a theory of fun based on the idea that different players are motivated by different things. According to Lazzaro, there are four key elements of fun that game designers should consider when creating games:

Hard Fun: This type of fun comes from overcoming challenges and mastering new skills. Players who enjoy hard fun are motivated by a sense of accomplishment and the feeling of getting better at something over time.

Easy Fun: This type of fun comes from activities that are enjoyable in and of themselves, without the need for challenge or mastery. Players who enjoy easy fun are motivated by the simple pleasure of doing something enjoyable.

People Fun: This type of fun comes from social interaction and connection with other people. Players who enjoy people fun are motivated by the opportunity to interact with others and build relationships.

Serious Fun: This type of fun comes from activities that have a deeper meaning or purpose beyond the activity itself. Players who enjoy serious fun are motivated by the opportunity to make a difference or contribute to something larger than themselves.

Lazzaro’s theory suggests that game designers should consider the different types of fun and try to incorporate elements of all four types into their games to appeal to a wider range of players.

Iteration

As methodical and sequential as what has been described may appear, there is actually quite a bit of going backwards; this is known as iteration in the design process. The design process is often imagined as a seamless, logical flow, as if it were always carried out by Spock-like people on uber-logical Vulcan. Look up “the design squiggle” in Google Images to discover what design looks like in practice!

Because it’s possible to make changes to earlier ideas even late in the design process, and because just when you think you might have solved something, you find out it’s back to the drawing board for that idea, the Design Squiggle simply reflects the messy nature of reality and the way one moves forward and backwards on a design project in a more chaotic manner.

Creating a game (or any other kind of creative work) is typically an iterative process. Iteration is an important part of the prototyping process in game development. Prototyping is the process of creating a simplified version of a game in order to test and refine its mechanics and gameplay. Iteration refers to the process of repeating this cycle of testing and refining the game multiple times in order to improve it.

The role of iteration in prototyping is to allow the game developers to try out different ideas and see how they work in practice. By creating a prototype and testing it, the developers can identify problems and areas for improvement, and then make changes to the prototype and test it again. This process is repeated until the prototype meets the desired level of quality and gameplay.

Iteration allows the developers to explore different ideas and make changes quickly and efficiently. It also helps to ensure that the final game is as polished and enjoyable as possible.

Bibliography & Further Reading

A Game Design Vocabulary: Exploring the Foundational Principles Behind Good Game Design by Anna Anthropy and Naomi Clark
A Theory of Fun for Game Design by Raph Koster
Advanced Game Design: A Systems Approach by Michael Sellers
An Introduction to Game Studies by Frans Mayra
Basics of Game Design by Michael Moore
Blood, Sweat, and Pixels: The Triumphant, Turbulent Stories Behind How Video Games Are Made Blood, Sweat, and Pixels: The Triumphant, Turbulent Stories Behind How Video Games Are Made by Jason Schreier
Board Game Design Advice: From the Best in the World vol 1 by Gabe Barrett
Building Blocks of Tabletop Game Design: an Encyclopedia Of Mechanisms by Geoffrey Engelstein and Isaac Shalev
Character Development and Storytelling for Games by Lee Sheldon
Chris Crawford on Game Design by Chris Crawford
Clockwork Game Design by Keith Burgun
Elements of Game Design by Robert Zubek
Fundamentals of Game Design by Ernest Adams
Fundamentals of Puzzle and Casual Game Design by Ernest Adams
Game Design Foundations by Brenda Romero
Game Design Workshop by Tracy Fullerton
Game Mechanics: Advanced Game Design by Ernest Adams and Joris Dormans
Game Writing: Narrative Skills for Videogames edited by Chris Bateman
Games, Design and Play: A detailed approach to iterative game design by Colleen Macklin and John Sharp
Introduction to Game Systems Design by Dax Gazaway
Kobold Guide to Board Game Design by Mike Selinker, David Howell, et al
Kobold’s Guide to Worldbuilding edited by Janna Silverstein
Level Up! The Guide to Great Video Game Design, 2nd Edition by Scott Rogers
Narrating Space / Spatializing Narrative: Where Narrative Theory and Geography Meet by Marie-Laure Ryan, Kenneth Foote, et al.
Narrative Theory: A Critical Introduction by Kent Puckett
Narrative Theory: Core Concepts and Critical Debates by David Herman, James Phelan, et al.
Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Fourth Edition by Mieke Bal
Practical Game Design by Adam Kramarzewski and Ennio De Nucci
Procedural Storytelling in Game Design by Tanya X. Short and Tarn Adams
Professional Techniques for Video Game Writing by Wendy Despain
Rules of Play by Salen and Zimmerman
Storyworlds Across Media: Toward a Media-Conscious Narratology (Frontiers of Narrative) by Marie-Laure Ryan, Jan-Noël Thon, et al
Tabletop Game Design for Video Game Designers by Ethan Ham
The Art of Game Design, 3rd Edition by Jesse Schell
The Board Game Designer’s Guide: The Easy 4 Step Process to Create Amazing Games That People Can’t Stop Playing by Joe Slack
The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative by H. Porter Abbott
The Grasshopper, by Bernard Suits
The Routledge Companion to Video Game Studies by Bernard Perron and Mark J.P. Wolf
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory by David Herman
The Ultimate Guide to Video Game Writing and Design by Flint Dille & John Zuur Platten
Unboxed: Board Game Experience and Design by Gordon Calleja
Video Game Storytelling: What Every Developer Needs to Know about Narrative Techniques by Evan Skolnick
Writing for Video Game Genres: From FPS to RPG edited by Wendy Despain
Writing for Video Games by Steve Ince
100 Principles of Game Design by DESPAIN