An analysis on historical military tactics of the 19th and 20th century
By Avan Fata
Once we had guns that fired a total of 8 rounds every minute, now we have guns that fire a total of 800 rounds every minute. Once we had planes that could fly at 100 km/h, now we have planes that can fly at 1000 km/h. Once we had horses that we used to charge the enemy, now we have tanks that barrel down on the target. Wherever you look in the military, you find a piece of history to accompany it and progress. One can indeed analyze how the equipment over the years has shaped the way we fight our wars today, though I have decided to explore how the way in which we fought 100 years ago has influenced how we fight now. This will be an exploration as to how the last 150 years of warfare has brought about innovation in weapons and tactics, for war truly is the mother of invention.
We turn back the clock to the American Civil War, where the open fields of America and the long range of the musket gave birth to tactics that would later be used in the First World War. It was here that most US generals embodied the battle formations used earlier in the Napoleonic Wars and one can indeed name the battles fought here as gentlemen-like in nature. Battles would often begin with the sound of a bugle or some other loud rallying cry, to notify the enemy that they best be prepared. Most times the infantry would take up square or linear battle formations, with the general or commander on his horse up front. A flag bearer would often form the morale booster for the men, hardly a wonder that these men were the first target for the enemy. Artillery often stayed in the back, firing on enemy positions when requested. In the latter years of the war observation balloons were used in experimental stages to gain information. Following this, enemy troops often opened fire when infantry was well within range. Cavalry was rarely seen supporting the troops, often times they would be sent ahead of the main force to scout for possible camping grounds and enemy positions.
It was on these killing grounds that fairly civilized tactics saw their end, during the battle of Chancellorsville in 1863, Confederate general Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson performed the first flanking attack of the war, with great success against the union. It was not only attack that began to “get dirty” but defensive tactics also saw their share of change. Once commanders realized that cover was the best measure in preventing deaths, forces would often dig trenches or stack sandbags and other thick objects to lower the risk of being shot. Artillery would be positioned on the high ground, to allow an advantageous view of the battlefield and where to direct fire. Overall, though the civil war introduced several new aspects of warfare, the fighting style represented an honorable one. However, even in the modern world artillery and other fire support units aim to gain defensive positions with high ground overlooking the enemy. Flanking attacks, though in their infancy, would later be developed into the tactics that most generals use nowadays. Most civil war tactics would later receive a serious revamp and reconstruction in the War to End All Wars.
It would be almost 50 years later that the gentlemen-like nature of war would start to crumble. When the First World War broke out, it was a scramble to stop the German Army from enacting the Schlieffen plan. As soon as the first British and French troops could no longer push the Germans back, both armies embodied the defensive doctrines of the Civil War, though they built upon the concept of deeper embankments by creating a system of them. The now infamously associated trenches were to be the birth of a new form of military tactics. Embodying the relentless hammer blows of the civil war, generals sent waves of men “over the top” in an effort to capture the enemy’s trenches and push them back. Unfortunately, unlike back in the civil war, technology prevented any successful attempts at capturing the enemy positions. Machine gunners mowed down enemy troops as they precariously made their way through barbed wire and other obstacles. This was an addition to the concept of barricaded defensive positions, with technology allowing for the addition of obstacles that didn’t only hamper the enemy but also wounded them if they tried to remove it without caution. Snipers picked off any troops that dared to stick their heads out of the trenches and officers were prized as valuable targets.The British, embodying the spirit of the union generals, constructed trenches that were purposefully meant for makeshift stay. They believed that through a war of attrition, the enemy would surrender their positions and the war could move deeper into the Continent.
The Germans, realizing that it was they on the backfoot, decided to make their trenches more comfortable and hospitable for the troops. Both armies however, continued to make use of long artillery barrages followed by mass waves of infantry, to no avail. Hardly a wonder why for majority of the war most troops stayed in one place. It was during these years that technological advancements, namely the aeroplane and tank, allowed for troops to finally push back the enemy. It was the Hundred Days Offensive by the British and Americans in 1918 that finally saw a mass collaboration between tanks, infantry, artillery and airplanes. The tanks would provide moving cover for troops, while reconnaissance and fighter planes would harass the enemy and relay information back to command. In this way, generals could adjust the battle lines and deviate from the planned strategy, something unheard of in previous generations of commanders. However, one of the most notable developments in military tactics during this period was employed by all forces, reconnaissance gathering. Knowing where and when the enemy was stockpiling troops and ammunition for an attack allowed troops to be moved in preparation for said attack. Information nowadays is still something that both sides in a battle aim to hide and gather in order to increase the chance of a successful campaign. Though there was one notable instance in which a new method of warfare would be born, it was during the Kaiserschlacht offensive in the early stages of 1918 that Blitzkrieg was first used in warfare. It would continue on to be the way in which Nazi Germany led it’s Wehrmacht in the Second World War.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, most armies were still expecting a long battle of attrition similar to those in the First World War. The Wehrmacht smashed this expectation when it swept through the entire European continent in little over six weeks. They used the tactic of Blitzkrieg, or “lightning war” to ensure a quick and easy victory. Blitzkrieg called upon the use of mobile troops and quick movement. Armoured vehicles would be the spearhead of the attack, punching holes in the enemy defense, which they would then exploit to outflank and encircle the remaining forces. Artillery and dive bombers such as the Junkers Ju 88 Stuka supported the infantry as they moved up. The idea was to hit hard, hit fast and shock the enemy to a point where their ability to counterattack is paralyzed. It was largely successful when Europe fell under the Swastika in those six weeks, yet it would not be the only tactic perfected during the war. It was here that amphibious and aerial assault were introduced, with the US perfecting its “island hopping” campaign in the Pacific and British paratroopers causing havoc behind enemy lines on D-Day. It was also in the Pacific that the US perfected the idea of aerial and naval superiority, many battles were fought with the opposing ships never seeing each other.
On the Eastern front, the Red Army introduced the Germans to “Rattenkrieg” or rats war, during the battle of Stalingrad in 1943. It was here that uncivilized tactics reached their high-point. The once open fields that favored Blitzkrieg were no longer there, here street by street fighting was common. Even now, with our sophisticated weapons of war cities are still cleared out using similar techniques the Soviets employed. Not everything during the war was flashy and loud however, during this time stealth was also looked at as a valuable tool. Night-fighting meant that troops were concealed under darkness and your positions were harder to pinpoint. It was not only attack that WWII revamped, it was defensive measures and structures as well. In the Pacific, the US continually changed their fleet formations. Towards the end of the war fleets often formed a circle, with the most important vessels (Aircraft carriers) in the center and more maneuverable destroyers on the outer rim. On the Russian Steppe during the Battle of Kursk, three main defensive belts were constructed to halt the German offensive. In a straight line, these trenches would run the distance between Moscow and Madrid. The Soviets knew that they had to prevent the Germans from breaking through or their Blitzkrieg tactic would work its devastation. Thus they made certain that gun emplacements were well hidden and could easily cover each other in case one came under heavy fire from the enemy tanks. It was here that the Blitzkrieg method finally began to suffer from the lack of adequate Luftwaffe support and the heavy Soviet defenses.
On the other side of the world, the Japanese were perfecting their underground defenses. Tunnels criss-crossing the battlefield ensured that reinforcements could be moved to surprise the enemy. The Japanese were notorious for connecting these tunnels to bunkers and pillboxes that had to be destroyed by explosives or flames to ensure no defenders came back to occupy them. Paired with their Guerilla warfare, the Japanese kept the Americans on their nerves, for every step would mean a step closer to hidden death. Overall, World War 2 developed old military tactics by updating them with technology and added some new ones. Some of which are still followed in wars fought today.
The wars of today still follow strategies tested and tried in the wars of yesterday. It was in the battle for Mosul that the US led coalition ran into a fortified city with defenses that could have been taken straight out of Stalingrad. Instead of laying obstacles to hamper the enemy, ISIS decided to lay a “devil’s garden” around the valuable town. Hundreds of mines and IEDs ringed the approaches, providing a hazard for those who were tempted to enter the garden. Yet it was also the assault on Mosul that might have sparked memories in the minds of old war veterans. US air forces targeted strongholds and troop emplacements, while Iraqi commandos cleared out houses using techniques made by the Soviets. Gone are the days where commanders signalled their movements by playing an instrument, gone are the days when flanking was unheard of, gone are the days where the battlefield stayed in the same place for weeks. History has once again worked its magic on the world of warfare, forcing commanders to adapt their tactics to a battlefield that’s constantly changing. The past 150 years of human conflict have not only shaped what we fight wars with, but how we fight them.
