Where is data diplomacy happening? A reading list

Data diplomacy is one of those terms that is becoming more frequently used within research and policy circles. This reading list is a compilation of what data diplomacy is, and more usefully, where to find it in practice. We want Canvas to be a place of openness, so in that spirit, I compiled this and got a few of my colleagues to add some of their recommendations too.

What is data diplomacy?

In trying to understand what data diplomacy is, and how it is different to traditional diplomacy I have found a few articles to be foundational to the concept. What is clear is that the increased power of Big Tech means that massive private companies now have a seat at the diplomatic table. This topic is being discussed by civil society and not-for-profits, by governments and by academia.

• Boyd, A., Gatewood, J., Thorson, S., & Dye, T. D. V. (2019). ‘Data Diplomacy’. Science & diplomacy, 8(1), http://sciencediplomacy.org/article/2019/data-diplomacy.
• Governing Cyberspace: Behavior, Power and Diplomacy (2020)
• Gorwa, R. and Peez, A. (2020). “Big Tech Hits the Diplomatic Circuit Norm Entrepreneurship, Policy Advocacy, and Microsoft’s Cybersecurity Tech Accord.” in Berg, B. van den and Broeders, D. (eds) Governing Cyberspace: Behavior, Power, and Diplomacy. Rowman & Littlefield.
• Gu, H., 2023. Data, Big Tech, and the New Concept of Sovereignty. J OF CHIN POLIT SCI. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-023-09855-1
• Tsvetkova, N.A., Kuznetsov, N.M. (2021). Phenomenon of Big Data Diplomacy in World Politics. RSUH/RGGU Bulletin Series “Political Science. History. International Relations” 0, 27–44. https://doi.org/10.28995/2073-6339-2020-4-27-44

Further:

• Aaronson, S.A., Leblond, P., (2018). Another Digital Divide: The Rise of Data Realms and its Implications for the WTO. Journal of International Economic Law 21, 245–272. https://doi.org/10.1093/jiel/jgy019
• Gao, H.S., (2021). Data Sovereignty and Trade Agreements: Three Digital Kingdoms. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3940508
• Erie, M.S., Streinz, T. (2023). The Beijing Effect: China’s “Digital Silk Road” as Transnational Data Governance [WWW Document], https://cld.web.ox.ac.uk/article/beijing-effect-chinas-digital-silk-road-transnational-data-governance.

Where does data diplomacy typically occur?

There are a number of locations where data diplomacy occurs, obvious places to look. For example, look for sites where typical ‘diplomacy’ already happens, then there will likely be an aspect of their work which focuses on digital, data and technology relations.

United Nations:

• For third time, China blocks Wikimedia Foundation as permanent observer to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) | Wikimedia Foundation
• Missing links in AI governance | UNESCO

Government and industry-supported working groups and summits:

• AI Standards Hub
• AI Safety Summit: introduction (HTML) — GOV.UK
• Digital Trade Network | UK-ASEAN Business Council

Government policy statements and reports:

• UK FCDO Information and Digital Directorate’s Business Plan for 2021–2022 aimed to “deliver diplomatic and development outcomes enabled by an expert, innovative and agile Digital, Data and Technology (DDaT) organisation.”
• UK International Technology Strategy | GOV.UK
• Integrated Review Refresh 2023 and Integrated Review 2021 | GOV.UK

Regional and international partnerships, trade negotiations:

• BRICS welcomes new members in push to reshuffle world order | Reuters.
• London and Helsinki sign the City to City Digital Declaration | The Mayor.EU
• High digital stakes in new China–ASEAN new agreement | East Asia Forum
• UK-Singapore data and tech agreements to boost trade and security | GOV.UK
• India’s proposed data localisation policies spark increased attention to cross-border data flows at the G20 | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP)
• Japan’s proposed Data Free Flow with Trust (DFFT) concept at the G7 aims to overcome fragmentation in different approaches to data governance | Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS)
• EU-US Data Privacy Framework deliberations highlights lack of trust in US data governance practices | CSIS
• World Trade Organisation (WTO) frameworks like the General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) articulate the free flow of information as a baseline principle for all international trade agreements, with some exceptions | Sen (2018)

Lobbying and campaigning relating to regulations:

• UK ministers seek to allay WhatsApp and Signal concerns in encryption row | The Guardian
• Big Tech increases funding to US foreign policy think-tanks | Financial Times
• W3C rejects Google’s cookie plans for Chrome | Computing
• An open letter to the W3C Director, CEO, team and membership | Electronic Frontier Foundation

Where are the unexpected places to look?

There are organisations that set the agenda for what the internet looks like to a user. To decide on protocols, domains or even emojis requires a lot of discussion. These organisations, therefore, are sites of debate and are locations where these diplomacy dynamics play out.

Wikimedia Foundation:

• For third time, China blocks Wikimedia Foundation as permanent observer to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) | Wikimedia Foundation
• Wikipedia operator denies Saudi infiltration claim | BBC News
• Wikipedia blames pro-China infiltration for bans | BBC News
• UK readers may lose access to Wikipedia amid online safety bill requirements | The Guardian

Unicode:

• Meet Jennifer Daniel, the woman who decides what emoji we get to use | MIT Technology Review

W3C:

• W3C rejects Google’s cookie plans for Chrome | Computing
• An open letter to the W3C Director, CEO, team and membership | Electronic Frontier Foundation
• The W3C Is At A Crossroads For The Web And Itself, With MIT Exiting As Admin And Disarray On All Fronts | AdExchanger

UK Biobank:

• Fears over China’s access to genetic data of UK citizens | The Guardian
• BMA ‘holding back medical research’ by refusing to endorse UK Biobank appeal for data | The Times

Standards development organisations:

• Increased participation of Chinese firms in shaping technical standards for emerging digital technologies | CEIP

What is the future of data diplomacy?

Data diplomacy will be one fora in which our future internet and digital lives are shaped. People are speculating or idealising what this future could look like — in the hope that it could lead to fairer and more just outcomes.

• Manor, I. (2022). “The road not taken: why digital diplomacy must broaden its horizons.” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, pp. 1–5. doi: 10.1057/s41254–022–00280–4
• Turchetti, S. and Lalli, R. (2020). “Envisioning a ‘science diplomacy 2.0’: on data, global challenges, and multi-layered networks.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 7 (1), p. 144. doi: 10.1057/s41599–020–00636–2.

These are the things we have been keeping an eye on as we try to understand this new topic. We wrote a report on ‘Power, ecology and diplomacy in critical data infrastructure’ where we tried to investigate these global dynamics.

You can find more connected research in the power and diplomacy collaborative bibliography on Airtable. Please comment if you have any suggestions, or feedback.