Factors that are Associated with the Development of Obesity in Children
Ogbonnaya N. Akpara
Brooklyn College
The objective of this paper is to discuss the definition, overview, prevalence, and the
factors associated with the development of obesity in children. Childhood obesity has hazardous
factors such as depression, lack of self-esteem, body unhappiness and eating disorder symptoms
that is controlled by elements such as age, gender, family characteristics such as parenting
lifestyle, and environmental factors such as school policies and demographics. Obesity in
children is a health condition that affects many low and middle income communities, especially
in urban places. Reducing the epidemic of obesity in children is very essential by making
healthier choices in one’s life.
Childhood obesity is a condition that appears when a child is above the normal weight for
his or her age group. Obesity in children serves as a key public health problem that affect’s
children’s physical health, happiness, and self-confidence. The definition of obesity is the
increase in body fat as a result of excess calorie intake and lack of physical activity. Childhood
obesity takes place when a child has a lack of self-appreciation and unhappiness. In order to
lessen or lower childhood obesity, the parents of that child has to enhance the diet and exercise
pattern for that child.
In the article “Reducing obesity: motivating action while not blaming the victim” by
Alder, N.E., & Stewart, J, the authors state that “the increase in obesity in the United States may
slow the long-term progression or direction of increasing life expectancy.” (Adler & Stewart,
2009, p.49). This means that reducing obesity is very vital in order for a child to live a long,
healthy and prosperous life. The authors also makes a point that “Obesity results from health
damaging behavior especially among women from low-income communities, those with less
education, and ethnic and racial backgrounds.” (Adler & Stewart, 2009, p.49). This means that
women who come from ethnic and racial backgrounds that are from non-affluent communities
and with a reduced amount of education take part in a large sugar intake by sugary drinks, less
physical activity, and excessive food intake, which causes a child to follow into their mother’s
footsteps, which sets a bad example for that child.
In the article “Prevalence and Trends in Obesity and Severe Obesity Among Children in
the United States” by Skelton, J.A., & Skinner, A.C, the authors state that “we used height and
weight as measured during the examination component to calculate age-and sex-specific BMI
percentile (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared).” (Skelton &
Skinner, p. 561–566). The authors are saying that the Body Mass Index (BMI) for children is
determined by the age and gender of that child. A child’s weight estimation uses an age-and-
gender specific percentile for BMI because children’s body makeup differs as they age. In the
article “Trajectories and Transitions in Childhood and Adolescent Obesity” by Firestone, R.,
Howe, L.D., Lawlor, D.A., Tilling, K., the authors state that “since BMI changes in childhood, it
can result in changes in height and weight.” (Firestone, Howe, Lawlor, & Tilling, 2015, p.30). In
other words, when using age-and-gender specific percentile, one can determine the BMI for any
child. In the graph, “Different Estimates of the Prevalence of Obesity among US Adolescents”,
from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), statistics illustrate the
body mass index (BMI) measured from self-reported height and weight amongst youngsters in
9th to 12th grade. For progenies, obesity is well-defined as a BMI greater than or equal to the age-
and gender-specific 95th percentile standard.
According to the article “Obesity Prevalence in the United States-Up, Down, or
Sideways?” by Yanovski, J.A., & Yanovski, S.Z., the author’s state that “the prevalence of
obesity among children and girls ages 2 to 19 years of age (16.9%) has remained stable over the
past 10 years and the prevalence among boys (32.2%) has not changed significantly.” (Yanovski,
2011, p.987–989). This means that the incidence of obesity among boys and girls are steady
which is a good sign indicating that the prevalence of obesity among boys and girls are
improving. According to Table 1, “Distribution of Demographic Characteristics and Obesity
Prevalence by Demographic Characteristics for All Participants”, the results state that “Older
children and non-Hispanic black and Hispanic children had higher prevalence rates of
overweight and obesity as well as both class 2 and class 3 obesity in the group of all years
pooled.” (Yanovski, 2011, p.987–989). This means that Hispanic and black youths have the
largest incidence of obesity than Whites.
The authors also states that “32.2% of children in the United States aged 2 to 19 years
were overweight and 17.3% were obese. Additionally, 5.9% of children met criteria for class 2
obesity and 2.1% met criteria for class 3 obesity.” (Yanovski, 2011, p. 987–989). This means that
there is a distinction in percentage of youngsters or progenies who are overweight and obese.
Moreover, progenies who meet the benchmark or standard are grouped in the order of which
class a youngster belongs. The author also makes a point that the “prevalence rates of
overweight, obesity, and class 2 obesity are increasingly significant among Hispanic females and
black males.” (Yanovski, 2011, p. 987–989). This means that the occurrence of obesity has
escalated within the minority groups over the past decade.
According to the article “Prevalence of Childhood and Adult Obesity in the United
States” by Carrol, M.D., Kit, B.K., & Ogden, C.L., the authors state that “the prevalence of
obesity among infants and toddlers from birth to age 2 years was 8.1%.” (Carrol, Kit, & Ogden,
2014, p.806–814). This means that the incidence of obesity among newborns and babies are
small which is an extremely excellent sign that it is getting better. The author also states that “the
prevalence of obesity in the United States is high, with 17% of children obese, it appears to have
leveled off in the years of 2009 and 2010.” (Carrol, Kit, & Ogden, 2014, p.806–814). This means
that the incidence of obesity is elevating and it is essential that the prevalence of obesity is
maintained and monitored at all times. The author also makes a point that the “prevalence of
obesity was lower among non-Hispanic white youth compared with non-Hispanic black youth
(P=0.048) and Hispanic youth (P<0.001).” (Carrol, Kit, & Ogden, 2014, p.806–814). This means
that non-Hispanic white (racially white) youngsters have diminished or declined the prevalence
of obesity as opposed to non-Hispanic black (African-Americans).
In the article “Trajectories and Transitions in Childhood and Adolescent Obesity” by
Firestone, R., Howe, L.D., Lawlor, D.A., Tilling, K., the authors state that “the prevalence of
both overweight and obesity continued to rise from ages 9 to 19 years in both black and white
females, with very large increases in the late teenage years in an analysis of 2,379 school
children in the United States.” (Firestone, Howe, Lawlor, Tilling, 2015, p.19–37). In other words,
childhood obesity is proliferating and one needs to observe the prevalence of obesity in children
so that it does not skyrocket. The authors also make a point that “at age nine, 30.6% of black
females and 22.4% of white females were overweight, rising to 39.3% and 24.1% respectively at
age 16 and 56.9% and 41.3% at age 19.” This means that one has to stabilize the prevalence of
obesity before it rises abruptly and rapidly.
The origination and development of childhood obesity is very difficult regarding different
reciprocations among genetics factors. According to the article “HIF3A DNA Methylation Is
Associated with Childhood Obesity and ALT” by Ma, J., Song, Y., Wang, H., Wang, S., Yang,
Y., & Zhang, Y., the authors state that “inheritance could account for up to 40–70% of the
interindividual variability in body weight.” (Ma, Song, Wang, Yang, Zhang, 2015). In other
words, the individual’s trait that is genetically transferred from parent to child makes up 40–70%
of an individual’s body makeup. The authors also makes a point that “methylation levels in obese
children were significantly higher than in controls at positions 46801642 and 46801699 in
HIF3A gene (P<0.05), and found positive associations between methylation and alanine
aminotransferase (ALT) levels adjusted by gender, age and BMI at position 46801699 (r = 0.226,
P= 0.007).” (Ma, Song, Wang, Yang, Zhang, 2015). The author is saying that if you find a
certain substance in the person’s gene at higher than normal, the person is at risk for obesity.
In the article “Genetics of Childhood Obesity” by Grant, S.F.A., & Zhao, J., the authors
state that “insulin-induced gene 2 (INSIG 2) was the first locus to be reported by this method to
have a role in obesity but replication attempts have yielded inconsistent outcomes. A common
genetic variant with modest relative risk (RR=~ 1.2), rs7566605, near the INSIG 2 gene has
described to be associated with childhood obesity from a GWAS (Genome-wide association
study) 100,000 SNPs.” (Grant, & Zhao, 2011, p.1–9). The author is saying that the insulin genetic
form is adjacent or close to the INSIG 2 that is linked to childhood obesity. Moreover, the
duplication process is not reliable or dependable to a point that the insulin gene will not produce
and effective result. The author also states that “studies from both FTO knockout and FTO
overexpression mouse model support the fact that FTO is directly involved in the regulation of
energy intake metabolism in mice, where the lack of FTO expression leads to leanness while
enhanced expression of FTO leads to obesity.” (Grant, & Zhao, 2011, p.1–9). This means that the
insufficiency of the FTO gene variation results in a deficiency or shortfall while a buildup of
FTO expression points to fatness or chubbiness.
In the article “An Obesity-Associated FTO Gene Variant and Increased Energy Intake in
Children” by Cecil, J.E., Hetherington, M.M., Palmer, C.N.A., Tavendale, R., & Watt, P., the
authors state that “children carrying the A allele had somewhat higher measures of waist and hip
circumference than children who did not have the A allele, but the differences were not
significant” (Cecil, Hetherington, Palmer, Tavendale, Watt, 2008, p. 2558–2566). This means
that the scientific measurements of youngsters with waist and hip boundary has a larger or bigger
value within the A allele. Moreover, the mathematical size of youngsters who have the A allele is
distinct or unique. The authors also state that “the children who carried the A allele had an
estimated fat mass that was 1.78 kg greater than that of non-carriers (P=0.01) and an estimated
lean mass that was less than 400g greater than that of non-carriers (P=0.46).” (Cecil,
Hetherington, Palmer, Tavendale, Watt, 2008, p. 2558–2566). In other words, youngsters that
carried the A allele had a heavy quantity larger than the progenies who are not carrying the A
allele and a lean mass smaller than 0.4 kg bigger than that of the youngsters that are not carrying
the A allele. The author also makes a point that “the children carrying the A allele ingested more
energy-dense foods than did the children who were not carrying the A allele, indicating a
preference for energy-dense foods.” (Cecil, Hetherington, Palmer, Tavendale, Watt, 2008, p.
2558–2566). This means that infants having the A allele consumed extra nourishments than the
progenies that did not have the A allele.
According to the article “An after-school exercise program improves fitness, and body
consumption in elementary school children” by Baldwin, S., Carrel, A.L., Clark, R.R., Curtis, V.,
Denininger, H., Logue, J., & Montague, P., the authors state that “improving health in children
should include a focus on increasing physical activity, in addition to encouraging healthy eating
for health promotion.” (Baldwin, Carrel, Clark, Curtis, Denininger, Logue, Montague, 2011,
p.32–36). This means that when you exercise and also participate in extracurricular activities, it
will enhance the progenies health in the long run. Exercising is a part of a daily routine that a
child must do on a daily basis. The parents of that child must teach the child that exercise is an
excellent form of physical activity that must be done to strengthen or supplement the child’s
health.
The author also makes a point that “the most successful programs are those that
incorporate activity into the child’s lifestyle, as part of the family and school environment.”
(Baldwin, Carrel, Clark, Curtis, Denininger, Logue, Montague, 2011, p.32–36). This
means that programs that have physical activity in a youngster or progenies life is vital in schools
and also in a family surroundings. The authors also state that “school based fitness programs can
significantly improve cardiovascular fitness levels, and body composition in young children.”
(Baldwin, Carrel, Clark, Curtis, Denininger, Logue, Montague, 2011, p.32–36). This means that
implementations of an institution or departmental exercise program develops or increases heart
fitness levels and body makeup in offspring’s.
The authors also state that “an effective public health approach would also promote
increased physical activity outside of school and throughout the summer months, as physical
activity recommendations cannot be met through physical education classes alone.” (Baldwin,
Carrel, Clark, Curtis, Denininger, Logue, Montague, 2011, p.32–36). In other words, youngster
will need to go to fitness programs that are around their community and they can’t be in their
own institution. Moreover, physical education classes in any institution alone will not assist the
youngster to improve their health because of the limited time the progeny has to complete an
effective workout. When I was a child, the physical education classes we had to take lasted an
hour and fifteen minutes long which is not enough time to execute a proper physical activity.
In the article “The effect of twelve week aerobic exercise programme on health related
physical fitness components and blood lipids in obese girls” by Ozturk, M.I., & Saygin, O., the
authors state that “12 weeks of aerobic training improved insulin sensitivity in overweight and
obese girls without any significant changes in body weight, body fat percent and circulating
concentrations of adiponectin, IL-6, CRP, and other inflammatory markers.” (Ozturk, & Saygin,
2011, p.1441–1445). This means that fitness training for twelve weeks enhanced obese girls and
it did not disrupt their body makeup, body fat measurement, and their provocative pointers. The
author also makes a point that “the regular aerobic exercise may affect health related fitness
components and blood lipids positively in girls. Furthermore, it may result in decreasing obesity
in girls.” (Ozturk, & Saygin, 2011, p. 1441–1445). In other words, when a progeny does aerobic
exercise on a daily basis, it will have a major impact on a child’s life tremendously. Moreover,
exercise reduces obesity in girls and assist girls in improving their everyday lifestyle.
The author also makes a point that “the effects of aerobic exercise on obese children
(N=49) aged 8 to 12 years. They found that there was significant increase in the aerobic capacity
(P <0.001).” (Ozturk, & Saygin, 2011, p. 1441–1445). In other words, physical activity on obese
youngsters had a higher or larger oxygen consumption in obese progenies. Moreover, the result
of oxygen consumption expanded when a progeny does larger amount of work on an everyday
basis.
According to the article “Trends in the Nutritional Content of Television Food
Advertisements Seen by Children in the United States (Analyses by Age, Food Categories, and
Companies)” by Powell, L.M., Schermbeck, R.M., & Szczypka, G., the authors state that
“children’s exposure to fast-food advertising has recently increased. The public health
community and government agencies have emphasized the need to address unhealthful food
advertising seen by children.” (Powell, Schermbeck, Szczypka, 2011, p.1078–1086). This means
that youngsters who watch fast-food commercials has skyrocketed to new levels because of the
amount of progenies who watch commercials. Moreover, bureaucratic companies highlights that
fast-food commercials should be prohibited because of how progenies are observant and
interested in eating those foods that are broadcasted on television. The author also makes a point
that “television also remained the primary advertising channel for food and beverage companies,
who spent an estimated $745 million dollars in this medium, of which more than 50% was
directed to children younger than 12 years.” (Powell, Schermbeck, Szczypka, 2011, p.1078-
1086). In other words, liquid refreshment groups spent $745 million dollars on advertising which
is primarily drawn to youngsters younger than 12 years of age. Moreover, the liquid refreshment
companies spent that much money on publicity knowing children will be baited by the
advertisement. In my opinion, I think that it is a waste of money because that money can go into
retirement plans, children’s future expenses and paying bills.
The author also states that “the largest percentage of reduction was for sweet ads, which
fell by 55.1% and 44.0% among children aged 2 to 5 and 6 to 11 years, respectively.” (Powell,
Schermbeck, Szczypka, 2011, p.1078–1086). This means that we are doing a good job
condensing the sweet advertisements for children. The author also makes a point that “exposure
to beverage ads fell more than 40% among both age groups, as did exposure to snack product ads
among younger children. Overall, exposure to food and beverage product advertising fell 32.5%
and 21.7% among 2 to 5 and 6 to 11 year olds, respectively.” (Powell, Schermbeck, Szczypka,
2011, p.1078–1086). This means that the government agencies and the food and beverage
companies are removing advertisement rapidly because youngsters are no longer being vunerable
to foods and beverages being displayed on the television.
In the article “Trends in Exposure to Television Food Advertisements Among Children
and Adolescents in the United States” by Chaloupka, F.J., Powell, L.M., & Szczypka, G., the
authors state that “African American children in all age groups in all 3 years saw more food
ads per day compared with white children.” (Chaloupka, Powell, Szczypka, 2010, p. 794–802).
This means that there is somehow racial discrimination that is taking place because of the
amount of times food ads are appearing on television for African Americans. The author also
makes a point that “white compared with African American youngsters had a substantially
smaller increase in exposure (+0.7% vs. +5.2%).” (Chaloupka, Powell, Szczypka, 2010, p. 794-
802). In other words, race-related exposure expanded tremendously for African Americans than
that of white progenies. The author also states that “trends showing a fall in exposure among 2 to
5 years olds but a rise in exposure among 6 to 11 year olds suggest that some companies may be
shifting their advertising to programs that fall just under the threshold for their definition of
children’s programming.” (Chaloupka, Powell, Szczypka, 2010, p. 794–802). This means that
food and beverage companies are deviating towards youngsters that are lagging behind, so that
the food and beverage companies could understand the meaning for their interpretation behind
youngsters television programming.
In the article “Amount of Hispanic Youth Exposure to Food and Beverage Advertising on
Spanish-and English-Language Television” by Fleming-Milici, F., Ham’s J.L., & Sarda, V., the
authors state that “Hispanic children viewed 664 Spanish-language food ads, and adolescents
viewed 769 Spanish-language food ads, which represent 15% and 17% of all food ads viewed,
respectively.” (Fleming-Milici, Ham, & Sarda, 2013, p. 723–730). In other words, the amount or
quantity of Hispanic youngsters principally demonstrate or indicate Hispanic progenies
television observation. The author also makes a point that “exposure to large numbers of
television advertisements for foods and beverages with little or no nutritional value likely
contributes to poor diet among youth.” (Fleming-Milici, Ham, & Sarda, 2013, p. 723–730). This
means that displaying TV set announcements for food and refreshments are partly accountable
for inadequate weight-reduction. The author also states that “Hispanic preschoolers, children and
adolescents viewed 4218, 4373, and 4542 total food and beverage ads on television, respectively,
or 11.6 to 12.4 ads per day.” (Fleming-Milici, Ham, & Sarda, 2013, p. 723–730). This means that
Hispanic youngsters have been exposed and have watched too much food and beverage
advertisements on television. Moreover, one needs to do a better job to eradicate these
advertisements on television.
According to the article “Reducing Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Childhood Obesity: The
Role of Early Life Risk Factors” by Gillman, M.W., Kleinman, K.P., Rich-Edwards, J.W., Rifas-
Shirman, S.L., & Taveras, E.M., the authors state that “black-white differences in risk of
overweight and obesity were reduced by 38% after adjustment for education and income
partially explaining observed black-white differences.” (Gillman, Kleinman, Rich-Edwards,
Rifas-Shirman, & Taveras, 2013). This means that African American to white ratio distinction
has diminished very well by 38% after modification of education and income. The author also
makes a point that “social conditions and their effects on children’s environments are important
for partially understanding the origins of disparities in childhood obesity.” (Gillman, Kleinman,
Rich-Edwards, Rifas-Shirman, & Taveras, 2013). In other words, societal circumstances and
their impact or result on a progenies neighborhood is very vital when deciphering or
comprehending the root of diverseness or divergence in childhood obesity.
According to the article “Childhood obesity: causes and consequences” by Bhadoria,
A.S., Choudhury, A.K., Kumar, R., Sahoo, B., Sahoo, K., & Sofi, N.Y., the authors state that
“the psychological factors of childhood obesity are depression and anxiety, self-esteem, body
dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms and emotional problems.” (Bhadoria, Choudhury,
Kumar, Sahoo, Sofi, 2015, p.187–192). This means that youngsters who eat too much have to
manage and handle problems with feelings and emotions, such as anxiety and stress, or battle
tediousness. Their close relatives might have comparable preferences. In the article
“Psychological correlates of childhood obesity” by Munsch, S., & Puder, J.J., the authors state
that “An important psychological factor of childhood obesity might be found in familial stress.”
(Munsch and Puder, 2010, p.37–43). This means that familial stress such as mental disorders
might contribute to the manifestation and maintenance of childhood obesity, partly by promoting
excessive energy intake.
The author also makes a point that “the mother’s anxiety predicted the child’s
internalizing problems and the child’s self-reported depression and anxiety symptoms, whereas
the mother’s depressive symptoms and eating-disorder pathology did not make an additional
contribution.” (Munsch and Puder, 2010, p.37–43). In other words, the mothers concern or
nervousness projected or anticipated the youngsters inner difficulties and misery while the
mothers gloomy warning signs and anorexia nervosa or bingeing did not mark or create a
supplementary or extra improvement. The authors also state that “the causal relationship between
obesity and psychological factors, such as impulsivity, depression, anxiety, familial influences
and poor social functioning, is not clearly defined. This is further due to the cross-sectional
nature of most studies, different definitions and assessment of psychopathology in childhood, as
well as lack of inclusion of potential confounders or mediators (social parameters, TV viewing,
sleep deprivation and so on).” (Munsch, Puder, 2010, p.37–43). In other words, the affiliation or
association among obesity and psychological factors is not properly or appropriately clear.
Futhermore, numerous or many meanings and valuation of mental disorders as well as the
absence of societal limitations, small screen programing and sleep deficiencies are due to
transversal analysis of most examinations.
The author also states that “the interrelatedness between weight gain and psychological problems
might be bi-directional, in that clinically meaningful psychological distress might foster weight
gain and rapid weight gain may lead to psychosocial problems.” (Munsch, Puder, 2010, p.37–43).
This means that obesity and mental complications might be amalgamated in that mental and
emotional pain and suffering might increase obesity while rapid obesity may indicate a
correlation between the psychological and social aspect of an individual’s well-being or health
which is a constant difficulty that needs to be examined.
In conclusion, childhood obesity is an illness that appears when a youngster is above the
standard weight for his or her age group. Obesity in children functions as an important or crucial
public health difficulty that affect’s youngster’s physical well-being, joy, and confidence.
These articles made me think about all the in-depth information I never knew about childhood
obesity. The general public base such as the media and television tends to control what and how
one thinks. In order to eat healthy and live a long and flourishing life, one must refrain from
advertisement from the TV set that encourage and bait children to engage in unhealthy behavior.
Children should participate in exercising because exercise is a crucial part of a child’s
life. When the youngster stays fit and trains its body, the child can live long. The incidence of
childhood obesity must be monitored because if it is not observed, it will rise sharply to levels
where one can’t control it anymore. The genetic factors of childhood obesity is the insulin gene
that is near the INSIG 2 that is linked to childhood obesity. The psychological factors includes a
child who overeats, and one has to manage and handle difficulties with feelings and emotions,
such as anxiety and stress, or battle dullness. African American to white dissimilarity has
weakened very well by 38% after adjustment of education and income. The public environment
and their power on a child’s neighborhood is very important when interpreting and
comprehending the root of inconsistencies of childhood obesity.
References
Adler, N.E., & Stewart, J. (2009). Reducing Obesity: Motivating Action While Not
Blaming the Victim. Milbank Quarterly, 87, 49–70. Retrieved from http://behaviorchangeresearchnetwork.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/50565758/Adler %2520%2526%2520Stewart%2520(2009).pdf
Ahmad Khan, K., Butt, T., Hameed, N., Mumtaz, A., Sadiq, F., & Yasmeen, F.(2013,
January 17). Ghrelin levels in obese children of diabetic parents. Journal of Diabetes and Endocrinology, 4(1), 6–11.Retrieved from www.academicjournals.org/journal/JDE/article-full-text-pdf/DF7CDAD4384
Azad, M.B., Sharma, A.K., & Souza, R.J. (2016). Association Between Artifically
Sweetened Beverage Consumption During Pregnancy and Infant Body Mass Index. JAMA. 170(7), pp.662–670. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.0301
Bernhardt, A.M., Gottlieb, M., & Wilking, C. (2014). Children’s Reaction to Depictions
of Healthy Foods in Fast-Food Television Adverisements. JAMA. 168(5), pp. 422–426. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.140
Bhadoria, A.S., Choudhury, A.K., Kumar, R., Sahoo, B., Sahoo, K., & Sofi, N.Y. (2015).
Childhood Obesity: causes and consequences. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care. 4(2), pp.187–192. Doi: 10.4103/2249–4863.154628
Carrel, A.L., Clark, R.R., Curtis, V., Deininger,H., Logue, J., & Montague, P.
(2011, June 3). An after-school exercise program improves fitness, and body composition in elementary school children. Journal of Physical Education and Sports Management, 2(3), 32–36. Retrieved from www.academicjournals.org/article/article1379413563_Carrel%20et%20al.pdf
Carrol, M.D., Kit, B.K., & Ogden, C.L. (2011–2012). Prevalence of Childhood and Adult
Obesity in the United States. JAMA. 311(8), pp.806–814. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.732
Cecil, J.E., Hetherington, M.M., Palmer, C.N.A., Tavendale, R., & Watt, P. (2008). An
Obesity-Associated FTO Gene Variant and Increased Energy Intake in Children. The New England Journal of Medicine, 359, pp.2558–2566. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0803839
Chaloupka, F.J., Powell, L.M., & Szczypka, G. (2010). Trends in Exposure to Television
Food Advertisements Among Children and Adolescents in the United States. JAMA. 164(9), pp.794–802. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.139
Crawford, P.B., Sanchez, B. N., & Sanchez-Vaznaugh, E.V. (2015). Association Between
Competitive Food and Beverage Policies in Elementary Schools and Childhood Overweight/Obesity Trends, Differences by Neighborhood Socioeconomic Resources. JAMA. 169(5), e150781. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0781
Cunningham, S.A., Kramer, M.R., & Venkat Narayan, K.M. (30 January, 2014).
Incidence of Childhood Obesity in the United States. The New England Journal of Medicine, 370, pp. 403–411. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1309753
Fleming-Milici,F., Harris, J.L., & Sarda, V. (2013). Amount of Hispanic Youth Exposure
to Food and Beverage Advertising on Spanish- and English- Language Television. JAMA. 167(8), pp. 723–730. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.21
Gillman, M.W., Kleinman, K.P., & Taveras, E.M. (2013). Reducing Racial/Ethnic
Disparities in Childhood Obesity, The Role of Early Life Risk Factors. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(8), pp.731–738. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.85
Grant, S.F.A., & Zhao, J. (2011). Genetics of Childhood Obesity. Journal of Obesity,
2011(2011), pp. 1–9. Retrieved from https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jobe/2011/845148/
Hamidli, S., Yetkin, A., & Yetkin, Y. (2010, April 2). The meaning of life: Health,
disease, and the naturotrophy. International Journal of Psychology and Counseling, 2(1), 9–16. Retrieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/journal/IJPC/article-full-text-pdf/CA1378D14251
Munsch, S., & Puder, J.J. (2010). Psychological correlates of childhood obesity. International
Journal of Obesity. 34, S37-S43. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010,238
Ozturk, M.A., & Saygin, O. (2011, May 30). The effect of twelve week aerobic exercise
programme on health related physical fitness components and blood lipids in obese girls. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 5(12), 1441–1445.Retrieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1380810970_Saygin%20and%20Ozturk,.pdf
Powell, L.M., Schermbeck, R.M., & Szczypka, G. (2011). Trends in the Nutritional
Content of Television Food Advertisements seen by Children in the United States, Analyses by Age, Food Categories, and Companies. JAMA. 165(12), pp. 1078–1086. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.131
Skelton, J.A., & Skinner, A.C. (2014). Prevalence and Trends in Obesity and Severe
Obesity Among Children in the United States. JAMA. 168(6), pp. 561–566. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.21
Yanovski, J.A., & Yanovski, S.Z. (2011). Obesity Prevalence in the United States- Up,
Down, or Sideways? The New England Journal of Medicine, 364, pp.987–989. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1009229
