Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) and Their Far-Reaching Effects: An Economic, Social, and Environmental Perspective

This research examines the diverse implications of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) on economic, social, and environmental fronts. It delves into their ability to enhance financial inclusion, improve transaction efficiency, and revolutionize monetary policy. Additionally, it addresses concerns related to privacy, digital literacy, and environmental impact. The research highlights the importance of regulatory frameworks, technology decisions, and privacy protections, along with approaches for education, fair access, and environmental sustainability. The conclusion points to areas for future research, stressing the critical influence of CBDCs in transforming the global financial system.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the transformative era of digitization and Web3, Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) emerge as a groundbreaking innovation reshaping global monetary systems. The novelty and absence of historical precedents for CBDCs have prompted extensive theoretical discussions, resulting in varied perspectives on their definition, potential roles, and implications.

CBDCs represent a nation’s official currency in digital form, issued and regulated by its central bank or monetary authority. Unlike traditional physical cash, CBDCs exist solely in digital form and hold the status of legal tender. Within the broader category of digital currencies, CBDCs differ significantly from decentralized cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum. Unlike these decentralized counterparts, CBDCs are typically backed by a central authority, providing stability and regulatory oversight. The International Monetary Fund (2020) describes CBDCs as widely accessible virtual fiat money issued by a central bank, forming part of the base money supply. Ferrari-Minesso et al. (2022) propose the concept of ‘reserves for all,’ suggesting that CBDCs could be accessible not only to commercial banks but also to the general public. Bindseil (2019) adds that CBDCs constitute a new form of base money alongside overnight deposits in central banks and issued banknotes. Despite varying definitions, the Bank of International Settlements (BIS, 2020) offers guiding principles for CBDCs, emphasizing their coexistence with other forms of money, avoidance of harm to financial or monetary stability, and promotion of innovation and efficiency. As technology continues to reshape economic and social landscapes, CBDCs signify a significant shift, affecting financial transactions, monetary policies, financial inclusion, behavior, and sustainability practices.

This research aims to investigate the economic, social, and environmental impacts of CBDCs, highlighting the potential benefits and challenges of their adoption. To achieve this, we have outlined specific research objectives:

• Analyze the economic implications of CBDCs, including their role in financial inclusion, transaction cost reduction, and influence on monetary policies and financial stability.
• Explore the social aspects of CBDCs, including Government-to-Person (G2P) payments, Universal Basic Income (UBI) distribution, effects on vulnerable populations, privacy concerns, digital literacy requirements, impacts on global philanthropy, and financial culture and behavior.
• Assess the environmental impact and considerations related to CBDCs, particularly their use in monitoring and regulating sustainable practices, reducing the carbon footprint and costs associated with physical cash circulation, and addressing energy consumption and electronic waste generation of CBDCs.
• Conceptualize the implications and concerns arising from our findings.

To achieve these objectives, this research is structured to provide a comprehensive understanding of CBDCs and their impacts. Section 2 details the methodology used. Section 3 reviews existing literature and categorizes key areas of CBDC research. Sections 4, 5, and 6 explore the economic, social, and environmental impacts of CBDCs, respectively, and discuss related implications and considerations. The conclusion summarizes key findings and identifies areas for future research. In a world rapidly transitioning to digital currencies, this research aims to offer a nuanced understanding of CBDCs, providing actionable insights for policymakers, central banks, and researchers involved with the evolving dynamics of modern monetary systems.

2. METHODOLOGY

This research employs a methodological framework comprising a comprehensive literature review, data synthesis and analysis, and an examination of global trends in CBDC adoption and impact. The cornerstone of this approach is a thorough literature review, which includes academic articles, policy documents, and reports from central banks and financial institutions. By integrating existing knowledge, the literature review provides historical context, investigates global trends, and identifies relevant theoretical frameworks for CBDCs. This helps to understand the development of CBDCs, the motivations behind their adoption, and the potential benefits and challenges as described in current literature.

To grasp the current state of CBDC adoption, this research analyzes global trends and case studies of countries that have implemented or are considering CBDCs. This analysis delves into the reasons for their decisions and evaluates the outcomes. By identifying common patterns, differences, and lessons learned, this study offers a nuanced understanding of the global dynamics related to CBDC implications and considerations.

The selected methodological framework, with its emphasis on an in-depth literature review and analysis of global trends and data, ensures a thorough examination of CBDCs and their impacts. By synthesizing existing knowledge and analyzing real-world data, this research contributes to the ongoing discussion about the economic, social, and environmental effects of CBDC adoption.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

CBDCs CBDCs have emerged as a significant topic in the realm of financial systems, attracting widespread attention for their potential to transform the monetary landscape. In this evolving environment, CBDCs are commonly viewed as government-backed digital currencies, offering enhanced security and reduced risk compared to traditional forms of money (Yamaoka, 2019; Zams et al., 2020; Sinelnikova-Muryleva, 2020). They are increasingly seen by regulators and researchers as a form of nationally issued ‘stablecoin,’ capable of contributing to the stability of the broader banking system (Sissoko, 2020). Numerous studies support this notion, emphasizing the potential positive impact of CBDCs on overall financial stability (Larina & Akimov, 2020; Copeland, 2020; McLaughlin, 2021; Buckley et al., 2021), indicating a growing consensus regarding CBDCs’ potential as a cornerstone in the modern financial landscape.

In the midst of increasing interest and a surge in research activities dedicated to CBDCs, it is paramount to acknowledge that CBDCs constitute a relatively nascent field within the broader domain of digital currency and financial technology (Fintech). As an evolving area, CBDCs have garnered attention for their potential to reshape traditional financial systems. The existing body of research in this domain can be broadly categorized into several key groups.

• Definition and implications: Researchers have embarked on discussions surrounding CBDC definitions, characteristics, and potential advantages (Yao, 2018; Masciandaro, 2018; Cunha et al., 2021; Kochergin, 2021; Li & Huang, 2021; Allen et al., 2022).
• Design and technology: Contributions have delved into the intricate nuances of CBDC design, technological innovations, and various implementation models and their optimization (Sun et al., 2017; Qian, 2019; Wagner et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021; Son et al., 2023).
• Security and privacy: Scholars have consistently underscored the critical importance of anonymity, security, and privacy in the context of CBDCs (Fu et al., 2019; Tronnier, 2021; Borgonovo et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021a; Pocher & Veneris, 2021).
• Central bank’s role: Researchers have contributed to the discourse surrounding the evolving role of central banks within the context of CBDCs (Cukierman, 2020; Yamaoka, 2019; Zams et al., 2020; Sinelnikova-Muryleva, 2020; Williamson, 2021; Fernández-Villaverde et al., 2021).
• Monetary policy and banking: Scholars have examined how CBDCs intersect with monetary systems, policies, and banking operations (Tronnier et al., 2020; Meaning et al., 2021; Shen & Hou, 2021; Davoodalhosseini, 2021; Viuela et al., 2020).
• Traditional currency versus CBDC: The discourse surrounding the implications of introducing CBDCs has emerged concurrently with the evolution of blockchain technology and the maturation of cryptocurrency markets. This dialogue has, in turn, spurred research investigating the distinct characteristics and price behaviors of traditional fiat currencies compared to emerging currencies like CBDCs and other cryptocurrencies (Bhaskar et al., 2022; Elsayed & Sousa, 2022; Hsu, Sheu, & Yoon, 2021).

In terms of CBDCs’ economic implications, researchers have closely examined the design of CBDCs within the context of different countries, suggesting that a CBDC model resembling physical cash has the potential to enhance financial inclusion and contribute to the reduction of shadow banking (Allen, et al., 2022; Zams et al., 2020). Expanding the discussion to a global economic context, a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model has been utilized to illustrate how CBDCs can act as a mitigating force against systemic financial risks (Tong & Jiayou, 2021). Additionally, scholars contribute to the understanding of the economic impact of CBDCs by investigating the potential effects on economic and financial sector development (Meier & Kondova, 2023), and delving into the macroeconomic consequences of CBDC issuance, unveiling the potential for sustained GDP growth (Barrdear & Kumhof, 2021). Fantacci and Gobbi (2021) have delved into the geopolitical and military ramifications of CBDCs, underlining their multifaceted significance.

While academic literature does not extensively discuss the social impacts of CBDCs, recent scholarly investigations have demonstrated significant advancements. For instance, researchers contribute insights through the lens of digitization and the evolution of money as a social technology of account, examining how the digitalization of currency impacts societal structures and practices related to financial transactions (Peneder, 2022). Others investigate the social dimensions of money in the digital age, placing emphasis on social adaptation and education, offering perspectives on how CBDCs may be integrated into society and the role of educational initiatives in facilitating this process (Horváth, 2023).

While there is limited discourse on environmental implications, recent research has made noteworthy progress in examining their role in green finance and sustainable development (Yang et al., 2023). Some studies delve into the environmental implications of CBDCs (Lee & Park, 2022; Jaimes Becerra et al., 2023; Schroeder, 2023). Additionally, insights on designing energy-efficient digital currencies have been drawn from lessons learned from crypto assets (Agur et al., 2023).

As CBDCs continue to shape the financial landscape, it is abundantly clear that further research and exploration in these diverse domains are crucial for gaining a deeper understanding of the multifaceted implications of CBDCs. The evolving narrative surrounding CBDCs suggests they are poised to play a pivotal role in the future of finance, and comprehensive research efforts are essential in navigating this transformative terrain.

4. ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF CBDCS

CBDCs are a hot topic in monetary policy and Fintech, with experts debating their potential impact. Their advent introduces a diverse range of economic consequences that extend beyond the financial sector. It is essential to delve into the intricate economic repercussions of CBDCs, investigating how these digital currencies may influence diverse aspects of economic activity, including but not limited to monetary policy, financial stability, payment systems, and the broader macroeconomic landscape. An analysis of the economic dimensions of CBDCs is crucial for comprehending the potential advantages, hurdles, and transformative effects they may bring to economies on a global scale.

4.1. ENHANCING FINANCIAL INCLUSION AND ACCESS

The potential for transformative impact on financial inclusion and access is a defining characteristic of CBDCs (Tan, 2023; Banet & Lebeau, 2022; Ozili, 2023). This attribute signifies the ability of CBDCs to bring about positive and far-reaching changes in the landscape of financial services, especially in addressing historical challenges within the traditional financial system.

CBDCs hold the promise of fundamentally altering the status quo by leveraging their digital nature to reach previously underserved and marginalized populations, providing them with opportunities to participate in the formal economy. This transformative potential encompasses not only simplifying and broadening access to financial services but also dismantling traditional barriers associated with physical banking infrastructure. The digital accessibility offered by CBDCs enables individuals, regardless of their geographical location or socio-economic status, to engage in financial transactions through a variety of digital devices, ranging from smartphones to basic feature phones. This democratization of access to financial services empowers individuals who may have faced difficulties in accessing traditional banking facilities, thereby fostering economic participation on a wider and more inclusive scale. For instance, the aims of Nigeria’s eNaira CBDC include enhancing financial inclusion, bolstering accountability within the informal sector, and facilitating seamless remittance processes. The main objective of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union’s DCash is to achieve financial inclusion. The Philippines underscores that the primary benefits of a CBDC are linked to advancing financial inclusion and guaranteeing the participation of 70% of adults in the formal financial system.

In the realm of inclusivity, the use of digital wallets associated with CBDCs eliminates the need for a traditional bank account, catering to unbanked or underbanked populations and thereby extending financial inclusion to those who were previously excluded from mainstream financial services. Furthermore, CBDCs can be intentionally designed with inclusivity in mind, incorporating features such as language accessibility and user interfaces tailored to diverse demographic groups.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Digital divide: While CBDCs have the potential to enhance financial inclusion, it’s crucial to address the digital divide. Ensuring widespread access to digital devices and internet connectivity is essential to prevent excluding those without technological access.
• User education: The successful adoption of CBDCs depends on user understanding. Educational initiatives are necessary to familiarize people, especially in underserved communities, with the use and benefits of CBDCs.
• Community engagement: Engaging with communities and stakeholders is essential to understand their unique needs and challenges. Community involvement can inform the design and implementation of CBDCs, ensuring that they truly meet the requirements of diverse user groups.
• Inclusive, customized, and user-friendly design: Adopting an inclusive design approach involves considering the diverse needs of users, including those with disabilities or limited access to technology. CBDC platforms should be designed to accommodate a wide range of users, ensuring inclusivity and equal access.
• Security concerns: As CBDCs target a broader demographic, there is a need for robust security measures to protect users, particularly those who may be new to digital financial transactions.

4.2 REVOLUTIONIZING PAYMENT SYSTEM EFFICIENCY

The integration of CBDCs stands at the forefront, ready to introduce a revolutionary wave of transformation in payment system efficiency (Piazzesi & Schneider, 2020; Bindseil, Panetta & Terol, 2021; Jin & Xia, 2022). This advancement represents a foundational change in how financial transactions are carried out, holding the promise of reshaping the entire terrain of payment infrastructure.

Thus, a fundamental advantage of CBDCs lies in their capacity to streamline transaction procedures. In contrast to conventional payment methods fraught with multiple intermediaries and prolonged settlement periods, CBDC transactions unfold in real time. Utilizing blockchain or distributed ledger technology (DLT) facilitates direct peer-to-peer transfers, obviating the need for intermediaries and condensing transaction settlement times to mere seconds. This accelerated pace not only augments user experience but also unlocks new possibilities for time-sensitive transactions like cross-border payments and high-frequency trading. For instance, the CBDC project undertaken by the South African Reserve Bank (SARB) are concentrated on enhancing the speed and efficiency of transactions, particularly at a wholesale level.

On top of that, CBDCs incorporate robust security features by leveraging sophisticated cryptographic methods and DLT systems. The immutability of DLTs and blockchains ensures transactions are tamper-resistant, mitigating the risks associated with fraud and unauthorized activities. Moreover, the integration of smart contracts adds a layer of security by automating and enforcing predefined contractual terms. Consequently, CBDCs provide a more secure and transparent foundation for financial transactions, instilling confidence among users and stakeholders.

Traditional financial systems often grapple with exorbitant transaction fees, cross-border payment expenses, and costs linked to intermediary services. CBDCs hold the potential to substantially alleviate associated financial burdens. By facilitating direct peer-to-peer transactions and eliminating the need for numerous intermediaries, CBDCs curtail processing fees and related expenditures. This transformative wave reflects a paradigm shift in the way societies engage in financial activities, marking a significant milestone in the evolution of payment systems globally.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Technology infrastructure: Countries and financial institutions need to invest in robust technology infrastructure to support the seamless integration of CBDCs, ensuring high-speed internet connectivity and secure digital platforms.
• Central bank coordination and interoperability: Collaboration and coordination among central banks are vital to harmonize CBDC implementations globally. Establishing standards for interoperability between different CBDCs and existing payment systems is essential to facilitate global transactions. A lack of interoperability could hinder the full potential of CBDCs in revolutionizing payment systems.
• Regulatory framework: Clear and adaptive regulatory frameworks are needed to address the dynamic nature of CBDCs, ensuring consumer protection, preventing illicit activities, and maintaining the stability of the financial system.
• Market acceptance: The successful implementation of CBDCs requires widespread acceptance by businesses, institutions, and the general public. Familiarizing with the benefits and functionalities of CBDCs is crucial to foster trust and adoption.

4.3 EVOLVING MONETARY POLICY AND CENTRAL BANK STRATEGIES

The increasing embrace of CBDCs is causing a fundamental transformation in the landscape of monetary policy, providing central banks with an unprecedented platform to confront challenges and capitalize on emerging opportunities (Davoodalhosseini, 2022; Meaning et al., 2018; Beniak, 2019; Niepelt, 2020; Yang & Zhou, 2022). This widespread acceptance signifies a departure from traditional monetary instruments, opening up new avenues for central banks to exercise more nuanced and direct control over economic variables. CBDCs, by virtue of their digital nature, allow central banks to enhance their responsiveness to economic conditions in real time, providing a more dynamic and finely-tuned approach to policy adjustments. This shift not only acknowledges the evolving nature of the financial ecosystem but also positions central banks at the forefront of technological innovation in the monetary sphere.

Additionally, CBDCs bring about a transformative impact on interest rate management as the direct issuance of digital currency provides central banks with increased flexibility to implement and fine-tune interest rates with greater accuracy. Foreby, central banks can actively explore novel tools enabled by CBDCs, such as programmable money and smart contracts that have the potential to automate and target policy interventions, streamlining the execution of monetary policies and reducing response times.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Risk Management: The introduction of CBDCs brings new dimensions to risk management for central banks. As they navigate the complexities of digital currencies, central banks must develop robust risk assessment frameworks, addressing issues such as cyber threats, technological vulnerabilities, and potential systemic risks associated with the widespread use of CBDCs.
• Legal and privacy concerns: The deployment of programmable money and smart contracts raises legal and privacy concerns. Striking a balance between the automation of policy interventions and protecting user privacy is a delicate challenge that requires careful consideration.
• Public trust: The successful implementation of CBDCs relies on public trust in central banks and their ability to manage the digital currency effectively. Transparency and clear communication are crucial in building and maintaining trust.
• Ethical implications: The deployment of CBDCs raises ethical considerations, including issues related to surveillance, data ownership, and the potential impact on individual freedoms.
• International coordination: As CBDCs impact the international monetary landscape, coordination among central banks is vital to ensure a harmonized approach to monetary policy and avoid unintended consequences.
• Continuous innovation: The landscape of financial technology is dynamic, and continuous innovation is essential to adapt to emerging trends and challenges.

4.4 NAVIGATING FINANCIAL STABILITY

CBDCs have emerged as a focal point in discussions surrounding the future of financial systems and their stability (Kim & Kwon, 2019; Keister & Monnet, 2022; Kumhof, & Noone, 2021; Tercero-Lucas, 2023). They can enhance stability and mitigate illicit financial activities by virtue of superior traceability and transparency compared to physical cash. For instance, the initiation of the Bahamian CBDC, Sand Dollar, is driven by the goal of reinforcing security measures against money laundering or illicit economic activities; The Eastern Caribbean Currency Union aims to strengthen anti-money laundering (AML) and combat the financing of terrorism (CTF) measures with DCash.

Leveraging DLTs, CBDCs establish a transparent and traceable transaction record which facilitates more effective AML measures, empowering authorities to expeditiously trace fund flows and promptly identify suspicious activities. Moreover, CBDCs enable regulatory bodies to maintain real-time access to transaction data, providing them with the tools to swiftly detect irregularities. The incorporation of smart contracts enhances security by automating compliance procedures such as identity verification and adherence to regulatory standards.

Furthermore, CBDCs may emerge as a stabilizing force during financial crises, serving as a secure form of money backed by the central bank. Recognized as legal tender, CBDCs become the preferred safe haven asset for individuals and businesses amidst economic uncertainties. The intrinsic stability of CBDCs plays a pivotal role in diminishing the risk of bank runs, as depositors may opt for CBDCs over traditional currencies, thereby mitigating panic-induced withdrawals that often exacerbate crises. Additionally, CBDCs offer a direct avenue for central banks to support the economy during tumultuous periods. With the ability to implement rapid and transparent monetary policies, central banks can leverage CBDCs for timely interventions, facilitating a more effective crisis response. The transparent nature of CBDC transactions further enables policymakers to assess the impact of their measures in real time.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Cybersecurity: The transparency and traceability of CBDCs should be accompanied by robust cybersecurity measures to prevent hacking, fraud, and other malicious activities.
• Scenario planning and stress testing: Central banks should conduct thorough scenario planning and stress testing to assess the resilience of the financial system in various CBDC-related scenarios. This proactive approach can help identify vulnerabilities and inform policy adjustments to ensure financial stability.
• Regulatory frameworks: While CBDCs enhance transparency, ensuring compliance with regulations while respecting user privacy is a delicate balance. Striking the right regulatory balance is crucial for fostering trust.
• AML and CTF compliance: While CBDCs offer enhanced traceability, regulatory frameworks and technological solutions must be continuously updated to address emerging risks related to money laundering and terrorist financing. Collaboration with international organizations and financial intelligence units is essential for effective cross-border AML and CTF efforts.

4.5 TRANSFORMING INTERNATIONAL DYNAMICS

Cross-border transactions face several challenges, including a lack of standardization, the involvement of multiple intermediary banks, and exposure to foreign exchange risks due to currency conversion. These factors contribute to inefficiencies, delays, and increased costs in the traditional cross-border payment systems and the global economic system as a whole. CBDCs have emerged as a potential solution to address these challenges (Ginneken, 2019; Themistocleous, Rupino da Cunha, Tabakis & Papadaki, 2023). For instance, Australia aspires to enhance the speed and efficiency of cross-border payments through the implementation of a eAUD CBDC, The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) has taken a leading role in cross-border testing of CBDCs through initiatives such as Ubin, Jasper, and Dunbar. The Bank for International Settlements’s Innovation Hub, in collaboration with the Bank of France and the Swiss National Bank, initiated Project Jura that is designed to experiment with the use of wholesale CBDC for cross-border settlements on a distributed ledger technology platform.

CBDCs can contribute to the development of a universal digital economic ecosystem. As more countries explore and adopt CBDCs, there is potential for increased interoperability, creating a more connected global financial system that transcends borders and time zones. Furthermore, they can facilitate smoother global trade by providing a universally accepted digital currency. This could simplify the complexities associated with multiple fiat currencies, making transactions more straightforward and transparent for businesses operating on an international scale.

One notable benefit is the potential for heightened efficiency in cross-border payments. Leveraging digital platforms and blockchains, CBDCs significantly reduce transaction time and costs, ushering in a new era of faster and more reliable international payments. Specifically, they cut down the number of intermediaries involved, speeding up transactions and expediting the overall process. Direct transactions with CBDCs eliminate or minimize the need for multiple intermediary banks, resulting in significant cost savings. The transparency and efficiency of CBDCs contribute to lower transaction fees, making them a cost-effective alternative for international trade. Moreover, CBDCs enable continuous cross-border transactions, overcoming limitations imposed by traditional banking hours and time zone differences. This 24/7 accessibility enhances the speed and convenience of international transactions, offering a seamless and uninterrupted financial environment for global trade.

Financial inclusion takes center stage as CBDCs provide a digital and accessible currency, particularly beneficial for regions with limited access to traditional financial services. By serving as a more inclusive infrastructure, CBDCs empower a broader spectrum of participants to engage in cross-border trade, contributing to overall economic flourishing.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Global governance and collaboration: The development and adoption of CBDCs on a global scale require international collaboration and governance, organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) can play a role in facilitating dialogue, coordinating efforts, and addressing challenges related to the cross-border use of CBDCs.
• Interoperability and standards: Standardizing protocols for cross-border transactions will be essential to facilitate seamless international trade.
• Exchange rate stability: The introduction of CBDCs may impact exchange rates; central banks need to coordinate to minimize volatility and ensure stable global economic conditions.
• Legal harmonization: Developing a harmonized legal framework for cross-border CBDC transactions is necessary to address jurisdictional issues and legal challenges that may arise in international trade.
• Scalability: The scalability of CBDCs is a crucial consideration to accommodate a growing number of transactions and users. The technology and infrastructure supporting CBDCs should be scalable to prevent bottlenecks and ensure efficient operation, especially during periods of increased demand.
• Environmental impact, continuous monitoring and evaluation: Ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the impact of CBDCs on cross-border transactions are necessary.

4.6 ACCELERATING INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS

The rollout of CBDCs could be a key element in the central bank’s efforts to modernize its economy. For example, in 2022, the Brazilian Central Bank (BCB) asserted that the primary objective of their CBDC, known as the Digital real, is to cultivate a secure environment for innovation by harnessing programmable and digital currency within Brazil. Furthermore, the bank expresses a strong interest in investigating the potential advantages of financial inclusion associated with the adoption of a CBDC.

The adoption of CBDCs has the potential to usher in a new era of innovation in the Fintech and payment systems landscape (Calle & Eidan, 2020; Auer, Cornelli & Frost, 2020; Panetta, 2018; Allen, Gu & Jagtiani, 2022). As central banks embrace digital currencies, various technological advancements are anticipated. The broader category of DLTs may see increased utilization in the financial sector. CBDCs could drive the exploration and implementation of various DLT models and their evolution. Beyond DLTs, CBDC adoption is expected to drive significant advancements in blockchain technology and cybersecurity.

As digital currencies become more integrated into the financial system, Fintech companies are likely to develop new and innovative solutions to leverage CBDC features. This could include the creation of user-friendly digital wallets, smart contracts, and other financial applications that capitalize on the programmable nature of CBDCs. The increased collaboration between traditional financial institutions and Fintech firms may lead to a more dynamic and responsive financial ecosystem.

The development and deployment of CBDCs often require collaboration across various industries, including finance, technology, and telecommunications, fostering the exchange of expertise and ideas, driving overall technological advancement. On top of that, CBDCs can drive the development of interoperability standards, enabling different CBDCs and existing financial systems to seamlessly interact.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Regulatory sandbox: Encouraging a regulatory sandbox approach can foster innovation while ensuring that the development of new technologies within the Fintech sector adheres to necessary regulatory standards.
• Cybersecurity measures: The rapid pace of technological advancements requires continuous improvement in cybersecurity measures to protect CBDCs and related technologies from evolving threats.
• Public-private partnerships: Collaborations between government entities, central banks, and private sector stakeholders can amplify the impact of CBDCs. Public-private partnerships can facilitate innovative solutions, promote and modernize infrastructure development.
• User-friendly interfaces: The success of CBDC-driven innovations relies on user adoption. Designing user-friendly interfaces for digital wallets, applications, and other financial services is essential to enhance accessibility and promote widespread use among diverse user groups.
• Feedback Mechanisms: Continuous monitoring of user experiences with CBDCs can inform adjustments to privacy features, ensuring that the system remains user-friendly and protective of individual privacy.
• Ethical concerns: Ethical considerations related to data privacy, artificial intelligence (AI), and the potential concentration of financial power should be addressed to prevent negative societal impacts.

Table 1. CDBCs’ Economic Impact.

Table 1 outlines the economic impact of CBDCs. In summary, it holds significant potential across various aspects, including financial inclusion, payment system efficiency, monetary policy, financial stability, international dynamics, and technological advancements. The advantages encompass reduced expenses, improved transparency, and expanded accessibility, especially for marginalized groups. However, successful implementation requires proactive measures such as investments in digital infrastructure, adherence to standards, and addressing ethical concerns. A harmonized approach, robust cybersecurity measures, and responsible regulatory frameworks are crucial for the successful integration of CBDCs, paving the way for a resilient, inclusive, and ethically sound financial landscape.

5. SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF CBDCS

CBDCs have transcended the realm of financial technology and become a central theme in publications about societal dynamics and their evolution (Peneder, 2022; Parker, 2023; Bilotta & Botti, 2021). As CBDCs inch closer to reality, there is a growing discourse on the potential social implications they may carry. Examining the intricate social repercussions of CBDCs is essential to unraveling how these digital currencies might reshape various facets of society. This exploration ventures beyond financial realms, encompassing aspects such as social inclusion, privacy, community dynamics, and the broader socio-economic landscape.

5.1 ENHANCING PRIVACY AND CONTROL

One of the paramount concerns surrounding the adoption of digital currencies is the delicate balance between privacy and regulatory oversight (Darbha & Arora, 2020; Tronnier, 2021; Lee et al., 2021a; Koziuk & Ivashuk, 2022; Jabbar et al., 2023). CBDCs, however, hold the potential to uphold privacy through meticulous design. By incorporating robust privacy features, such as encryption and pseudonymization, CBDCs can ensure that transactions are conducted with a heightened degree of anonymity, allowing users greater autonomy over their financial data. This not only aligns with the individual’s right to financial privacy but also contributes to a more secure and trust-centric financial system.

Moreover, the implementation of CBDCs can be engineered to strike a harmonious chord with regulatory imperatives, particularly in combating illicit activities. Adherence to AML regulations can be seamlessly integrated into CBDC frameworks, allowing for the necessary oversight without compromising individual privacy. Consequently, CBDCs can be instrumental in fostering a financial ecosystem where privacy is safeguarded without sacrificing the vigilance required for a secure financial environment.

Beyond privacy considerations, CBDCs have the potential to reshape power dynamics within the financial landscape. Traditional financial systems often place significant control in the hands of private financial institutions, influencing everything from transactional fees to access to financial services. CBDCs, however, have the capacity to democratize financial control.

Granting individuals direct access to digital currency issued by the central bank, CBDCs can empower citizens, giving them a heightened sense of control over their financial affairs. This decentralization of financial power can reduce dependence on private financial institutions, fostering a more inclusive and equitable financial system. Citizens gain the ability to manage their assets more independently, contributing to a shift in the traditional power structures that have historically defined financial interactions. In essence, the positive impact of CBDCs on power dynamics extends beyond individual transactions, potentially heralding a new era where financial autonomy is more evenly distributed among citizens, thus creating a more egalitarian financial landscape.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Privacy concerns: Designing robust privacy features and ensuring compliance with data protection regulations are essential to maintain user trust.
• Cybersecurity: Implementing robust cybersecurity measures to protect against cyber threats, hacking, and fraud is crucial to maintaining the integrity and security of the CBDC ecosystem.
• Technological safeguards: Ongoing investments in advanced cryptographic methods are necessary to continually safeguard user privacy against evolving cyber threats.
• Balancing regulations: It’s crucial to strike a delicate equilibrium between privacy and regulatory oversight, ensuring that CBDCs provide privacy without compromising efforts to combat illicit activities.
• User education: Educating users about the extent of privacy provided by CBDCs is vital to manage expectations and promote responsible usage.

5.2 EMPOWERING MICROTRANSACTIONS AND COMMUNITY-BASED FINANCING

The advent of CBDCs holds the potential to revolutionize small-value transactions, fostering an environment where microtransactions become not only feasible but also economically viable. This empowerment is particularly significant for grassroots entrepreneurs, creative professionals, and local businesses that rely on quick, low-cost transactions to sustain and grow. In practice, CBDCs could enable small-scale digital content creators, artists, and service providers to receive fair compensation for their work. The reduction in transaction costs and the elimination of intermediaries can ensure that a more substantial portion of funds directly reaches those who contribute to the creative and entrepreneurial landscape.

On top of that, CBDCs pave the way for innovative community-based financing initiatives. Decentralized financial structures, made possible by CBDCs, can empower local projects, startups, and community organizations. This could lead to a democratization of funding, allowing communities to finance projects that directly cater to their needs and aspirations. In a scenario where a local community seeks to develop sustainable infrastructure or support a community-driven educational initiative, through CBDCs, these communities could attract investments directly from individuals who share a common interest or belief in the project’s social value, fostering a sense of collective ownership and responsibility.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Inclusive access: Ensuring that the advantages of CBDCs in empowering microtransactions reach grassroots entrepreneurs and local businesses requires careful attention to providing inclusive access to digital infrastructure.
• Scalability: Technological infrastructure should be robust enough to support widespread adoption without compromising efficiency and security.
• Regulatory support: Developing supportive regulatory frameworks for small-scale transactions and community-based financing initiatives is crucial to encourage innovation and prevent regulatory obstacles.
• Digital literacy: Ensuring that individuals, especially small-scale entrepreneurs, are digitally literate to leverage the potential of CBDCs for their economic activities is imperative.
• Community engagement: Successful implementation of community-based financing initiatives requires active community engagement by building awareness, garnering support, and fostering a sense of community ownership.

5.3 HELPING GLOBAL PHILANTHROPY & AID TRANSPARENCY

Transparency in charitable donations and international aid is a crucial aspect of effective philanthropy (Barr et al., 2021). CBDCs, leveraging DLT and blockchain technology, offer a solution to enhance the traceability of funds. This transparency not only fosters a sense of trust but also acts as a deterrent to misallocation or corruption. Donors can have confidence that their funds are reaching the intended recipients, and this increased accountability contributes to a more efficient and accountable global philanthropic ecosystem.

During times of crisis or humanitarian emergencies, CBDCs become particularly invaluable. The real-time tracking capability ensures that donors can monitor the movement of aid funds swiftly and accurately. This minimizes the risk of funds being diverted or misused, addressing a longstanding challenge in the humanitarian aid sector. Timely and targeted support becomes possible, leading to more effective responses to crises. CBDCs, through their transparency features, become a powerful tool for reinforcing the positive social impact of philanthropy and aid, ultimately benefiting the communities in need.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Technological infrastructure: Ensuring that the technology is scalable, secure, and accessible in different regions is essential.
• Global coordination: Achieving transparency in global philanthropy through CBDCs requires international cooperation to establish standardized protocols and ensure effective cross-border tracking.
• Privacy concerns: While transparency is crucial, finding a balance between aid transparency and the privacy of individuals in need is essential to maintain dignity and avoid potential harm.
• Interoperability: Ensuring interoperability between different CBDC systems globally is crucial for the seamless flow of funds in international aid efforts.
• Education and capacity building: Stakeholders involved in philanthropy, including donors, aid organizations, and recipients, may need education on how to navigate and utilize CBDCs effectively. Capacity-building initiatives can empower these entities to make optimal use of the technology while understanding the implications of its transparent features.
• Humanitarian partnerships: Collaboration between governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other humanitarian entities is essential.

5.4 G2P PAYMENTS: DISTRIBUTING UBI & SUPPORTING VULNERABLE POPULATIONS

The integration of CBDCs with robust digital identity systems allows for effective and secure Government-to-Person (G2P) payments and distribution of social services. This guarantees that individuals receive the necessary support for education, healthcare, and other vital services. CBDCs streamline the distribution of financial aid by enabling seamless transfers directly into citizens’ accounts, eliminating bureaucratic complexities, reducing delays and administrative overheads.

The fusion of CBDCs with Universal Basic Income (UBI) heralds a new era in essential income support distribution (Avanzo et al., 2023). Efficiency gains, financial inclusivity, security enhancements, and customization redefine welfare systems, presenting an opportunity for a resilient and inclusive economic future. Immediate access to UBI funds becomes a reality, particularly crucial during economic uncertainties or crises.

The programmable nature of CBDCs can be harnessed to provide targeted and consistent support for the elderly and vulnerable populations. With smart contracts, CBDCs can automate regular payments, such as pensions or social welfare, ensuring a reliable income stream for those who may be at risk of financial insecurity. This application of CBDCs not only contributes to financial stability but also addresses social issues associated with the aging population. Reliable and automated financial support can enhance the well-being of vulnerable individuals, fostering a more inclusive and compassionate society.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Inclusive accessibility: Ensuring that vulnerable populations have inclusive access to CBDCs is crucial for the success of distributing UBI and targeted support.
• Data privacy: Given the sensitive nature of financial support distribution, data privacy considerations are paramount. Implementing robust data protection measures and ensuring compliance with privacy regulations are essential to safeguard the personal information of recipients.
• Smart contract safeguards: Implementing robust smart contract safeguards to protect vulnerable populations and prevent misuse of automated financial support is essential.
• Educational outreach: Conducting extensive educational outreach is crucial to ensure that vulnerable populations understand and can effectively utilize CBDCs for their financial well-being.
• Regulatory framework: A clear and supportive regulatory framework is necessary to govern the integration of CBDCs with income support systems.

5.5 FINANCIAL LITERACY AND DIGITAL DIVIDE

Another critical facet of the social impact of CBDCs lies in their influence on financial literacy and the possibility of either mitigating or exacerbating the digital divide (Náñez Alonso et al., 2020). As these digital currencies gain prominence, there is an opportunity to enhance financial literacy through their adoption. CBDCs can serve as a catalyst for education and awareness programs, empowering individuals to better understand and navigate the digital financial landscape. With CBDCs citizens will potentially make more informed financial decisions, thereby contributing to overall economic well-being. Increased financial literacy can lead to more responsible financial behavior, reducing the likelihood of individuals falling prey to scams or making uninformed investment choices.

Moreover, by providing a more inclusive and accessible financial infrastructure, CBDCs have the potential to bridge the existing digital divide, ensuring that a broader segment of the population can participate in the evolving digital economy. This proactive approach to financial inclusion aligns with the broader goals of societal equity and empowerment, fostering a more inclusive financial ecosystem that benefits individuals across diverse socio-economic backgrounds. The intersection of financial literacy and the digital divide is a critical aspect to consider in the context of initiatives like Nigeria’s eNaira.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Education programs: Governments and institutions should invest in comprehensive education programs to enhance financial literacy and bridge the digital divide.
• Accessibility measures: Ensuring that CBDCs are accessible to all, including those with limited technological access, is crucial to prevent further exclusion.
• User-friendly interfaces: Designing user-friendly interfaces for CBDCs to accommodate diverse demographics, including those with varying levels of digital literacy, is essential.

5.6 CULTURAL AND BEHAVIORAL SHIFTS

The introduction of CBDCs may trigger significant cultural and behavioral shifts in how individuals perceive and interact with money (Koziuk & Ivashuk, 2022; Luu et al., 2023). One notable aspect is the seamless integration of digital currencies into everyday transactions, fostering a more technologically driven and efficient financial landscape. DLTs security and transparency could lead to increased confidence in digital financial systems, encouraging more individuals to participate in formal financial channels.

The shift towards CBDCs may also prompt a change in attitudes toward traditional forms of currency. As digital currencies become more prevalent, individuals may come to appreciate the efficiency, speed, and cost-effectiveness associated with CBDC transactions, ultimately influencing a positive shift in the perception of digital money as a reliable and convenient means of conducting financial transactions.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Public awareness: Educational campaigns and public awareness initiatives can help guide a smooth transition and foster positive attitudes toward CBDCs.
• Psychological impact: Anticipating and addressing the psychological impact of the shift to CBDCs, including potential resistance or concerns, through targeted interventions and support mechanisms is crucial.
• Regulatory adaptation: Regulatory frameworks should be adaptive to cultural and behavioral shifts, ensuring that legal structures align with evolving societal attitudes toward digital currencies.

Table 2. CDBCs’ Social Impact.

Table 2 summarizes the social implications of CBDCs. They encompass a spectrum of transformative possibilities. From privacy and control to microtransactions, global philanthropy, G2P payments, financial literacy, and cultural shifts, CBDCs have the potential to reshape the way societies interact with money. While introducing newfound privacy and control, CBDCs require careful consideration of cybersecurity and ethical concerns. The revolution in small-value transactions and community-based financing necessitates frameworks promoting innovation and active community engagement. Enhanced transparency in global philanthropy and targeted support for vulnerable populations through CBDCs require international standards, humanitarian partnerships, and robust regulatory frameworks. Bridging the digital divide and fostering cultural and behavioral shifts mandate inclusive educational programs and the anticipation of societal attitudes. In essence, realizing the full social impact of CBDCs requires a delicate balance between innovation, privacy, and societal readiness.

6. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CBDCS

The environmental impact of CBDCs is increasingly under scrutiny in discussions surrounding monetary policy and Fintech. (Lee & Park, 2022; Yang et al., 2023; Shilina, 2023; Schroeder, 2023; Agur et al., 2023; Jaimes Becerra et al., 2023; Wanat, 2021). With the rise of these digital world, there come various environmental consequences that extend beyond the conventional financial sector. It is crucial to examine how CBDCs may affect different facets of environmental sustainability, including but not limited to factors like energy consumption, carbon footprint, and the broader ecological landscape.

6.1 REDUCING PAPER USAGE

As per the findings of the De Nederlandsche Bank (DNB) reported by the World Bank, the overall environmental impact of cash transactions was 1.5 times greater than that of digital payments. Furthermore, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) suggests employing digital wallets directly integrated into users’ smartphones for CBDCs, eliminating the need for extra devices and potentially reducing reliance on card payment networks (Lee & Park, 2022).

CBDCs can have several positive environmental impacts, although it’s important to note that the overall impact depends on various factors including the design and implementation of the CBDC. The transition to CBDCs heralds a notable advancement in the context of reducing paper usage. With CBDCs being inherently digital, they render physical banknotes and coins obsolete, mitigating the environmental toll associated with paper production. The traditional process of manufacturing paper currency involves substantial deforestation, water usage, and energy consumption. By eliminating the need for tangible currency, CBDCs contribute to the conservation of forests and biodiversity, while simultaneously curbing the release of greenhouse gasses and pollutants linked to paper production.

Beyond the initial environmental benefits of reduced paper production, CBDCs also alleviate the strain on waste management systems. The disposal of physical currency involves intricate processes, including secure destruction and recycling. CBDCs, by existing solely in digital form, sidestep the challenges of dealing with end-of-life currency materials. This reduction in waste production aligns with global efforts to minimize landfill usage and manage electronic waste responsibly.

Reduced paper usage also contributes to cost savings. For instance, the key incentive behind the creation of Jamaican CBDC was to decrease the costs associated with storing and handling physical cash. JAM-DEX is anticipated to result in annual savings of approximately 7 million US dollars, currently allocated to the replacement, storage, and management of physical currency in Jamaica.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Implementation challenges: The success of reducing paper usage depends on the successful implementation of CBDCs. Challenges such as cybersecurity, privacy concerns, and public acceptance need to be addressed to ensure a smooth transition without compromising security.
• Digital divide: The shift to CBDCs assumes widespread access to digital infrastructure. It’s essential to consider potential disparities in digital access, especially in regions or demographics with limited technological resources.
• Regulatory framework: Effective regulations can guide the responsible production and disposal of electronic devices and infrastructure associated with CBDCs.
• Hardware-related environmental impacts: The examination of hardware-related environmental impacts takes place here. The life cycle of mining hardware, influenced by factors like production, utilization, and disposal, must be scrutinized for its potential contribution to electronic waste. Simultaneously, consideration should extend to the environmental footprint of end-user devices utilized in CBDC transactions.

6.2 LOWERING CARBON FOOTPRINT

Assessing the carbon footprint of cryptocurrency presents a complex challenge. Proof-of-Work (PoW) projects like Bitcoin, and cryptocurrency mining in numerous countries are frequently powered by fossil fuels, but miners typically pursue the most cost-effective energy sources to ensure profitability. On the contrary, alternative digital currencies that utilize Proof-of-Stake (PoS) generally exhibit lower carbon footprints, as they do not depend on the same energy-intensive computations. For instance, in September 2022, Ethereum transitioned to PoS, resulting in a 99.9% reduction in energy consumption.

The infrastructure of CBDCs differs fundamentally from that of cryptocurrencies. CBDCs do not require the energy-intensive decentralized mining process. Nevertheless, the concrete environmental consequences hinge on particular design decisions, including the incorporation of energy-efficient mechanisms, the utilization of eco-friendly data centers, and the enforcement of policies by central banks and governments aimed at fostering sustainability.

Moreover, the integration of CBDCs offers a notable avenue for mitigating the carbon footprint associated with the circulation of physical cash. Traditionally, the movement of cash involves a complex web of logistics, including secure transportation, storage, and distribution. These processes demand substantial energy consumption, often relying on fossil fuels for transportation, and result in carbon emissions (Sarkar et al., 2019). The adoption of CBDCs eliminates the necessity for physically transporting large volumes of cash, as digital transactions can occur seamlessly over electronic networks. This reduction in the physical movement of currency not only enhances the overall efficiency of financial transactions but also directly contributes to a significant decrease in the carbon emissions associated with the transportation and distribution of physical cash. For instance, the key incentive for issuing a Canadian CBDC would be a sufficiently cashless economy, limiting the use of the Canadian dollar in its physical form, according to the Bank of Canada’s 2020 document. In developing the e-Krona, Sweden’s Riksbank is primarily concerned with growing digitalization and the move away from cash in its economy.

Furthermore, the streamlined nature of digital transactions, facilitated by CBDCs, results in a more energy-efficient financial infrastructure overall. Centralized digital systems can operate with lower energy requirements compared to the maintenance of extensive physical banking infrastructures. By reducing the demand for physical transportation and promoting energy efficiency, the adoption of CBDCs serves as a key driver in lowering the carbon footprint of the financial sector, aligning with broader global initiatives to combat climate change and promote sustainability.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Design choices: The carbon footprint reduction relies on the energy efficiency of the underlying technological infrastructure. Continuous advancements and improvements in technology are necessary to maximize the environmental benefits of CBDCs.
• E-waste management: Develop strategies for responsible electronic waste management, considering the potential increase in e-waste due to the digital nature of CBDCs.
• Inclusive access: While reducing carbon emissions, it’s important to ensure that the adoption of CBDCs remains inclusive and does not exclude individuals or communities that may face challenges in embracing digital financial systems.
• Carbon offsetting: The reduction in carbon emissions from the financial sector should be complemented by efforts to offset emissions in other sectors. A holistic approach to carbon reduction across various industries is essential for overall environmental sustainability.
• Monitoring and reporting: Establishing transparent reporting mechanisms allows for the assessment of the actual carbon footprint and enables adjustments or improvements to be made based on real-time data.

6.3 ENHANCING MONITORING FOR SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES

CBDCs usher in a new era of transparency in financial transactions, offering central banks advanced tools for monitoring and regulating economic activities. This transparency can be leveraged to foster sustainable practices by individuals and businesses. Central banks, armed with comprehensive data on financial transactions, can create incentives for environmentally friendly behavior or enforce regulations that promote sustainability. For instance, CBDCs could be designed to offer preferential transaction fees or rewards for transactions aligned with green initiatives, thereby encouraging a shift towards eco-friendly economic practices.

Moreover, the enhanced monitoring capabilities of CBDCs extend beyond traditional financial transactions to include a broader spectrum of economic activities. By integrating environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria into the monitoring framework (Huang, 2021; Tsang, Frost & Cao, 2023), central banks can actively contribute to the promotion of sustainable practices across various sectors. CBDCs enable the establishment of smart contracts and programmable transactions that can automatically enforce adherence to sustainability standards, providing an innovative and effective means to advance environmentally friendly activities. In essence, CBDCs not only facilitate financial transactions but also empower central banks to play a proactive role in shaping a more sustainable and eco-conscious economic landscape.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Balancing incentives: Central banks need to balance the encouragement of sustainability with maintaining a fair and efficient economic environment.
• Data privacy: Striking a balance between promoting sustainable practices and safeguarding privacy is crucial to ensure public trust in the use of CBDCs for monitoring purposes.
• Global cooperation: Since environmental issues are global, international collaboration is necessary to establish unified standards and practices. CBDCs could be a catalyst for global cooperation on sustainable finance and economic activities.
• Standardization of ESG criteria: The integration of ESG criteria into CBDC monitoring requires standardization to ensure consistent and fair assessments.
• Public awareness and education: Central banks need to engage in public communication efforts to ensure a clear understanding of the link between CBDCs, sustainability, and the broader economic landscape.
• Ethical considerations: Central banks must establish ethical guidelines for using CBDC data to encourage sustainable practices. Transparency in how data is used and the intentions behind incentivizing green initiatives is vital for maintaining credibility.

6.4 INNOVATING GREEN FINANCE

CBDCs have the capacity to revolutionize the field of green finance by serving as a dynamic platform for endorsing environmentally sustainable initiatives. One promising avenue involves using CBDCs to expedite and secure financial transactions associated with renewable energy projects. This tailored approach could streamline the funding processes for solar or wind energy ventures, ensuring a more direct and efficient flow of capital into endeavors contributing to a sustainable, low-carbon energy future.

Moreover, CBDCs integration with smart contract mechanisms may be designed to incentivize eco-friendly practices. For example, individuals or businesses adopting environmentally responsible behaviors might be rewarded through programmable smart contracts, receiving benefits such as reduced transaction fees. This innovative strategy not only champions sustainability but also harnesses the inherent capabilities of digital currencies to automate and enforce environmentally conscious actions. Ultimately, CBDCs have the potential to play a pivotal role in reshaping the financial landscape, actively supporting and motivating green finance initiatives in alignment with global endeavors to address climate change and promote sustainable development.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• Risk management: Green finance initiatives should be supported by effective risk management strategies to ensure the financial stability of CBDCs. Mitigating potential risks associated with innovative financial mechanisms is crucial for the long-term success of green finance through CBDCs.
• Market dynamics: The adoption of CBDCs for green finance may influence market dynamics. Careful consideration is needed to prevent market distortions and ensure fair competition among various sustainable initiatives.
• Public awareness: Educating the public about the potential benefits of green finance through CBDCs is essential. Public support and understanding can drive the success of such initiatives, fostering a positive impact on the environment.

6.5 ENCOURAGING RENEWABLE ENERGY ADOPTION

The deployment of energy-efficient technology and algorithms and a reliance on renewable energy sources in CBDC implementations can serve as a model for broader technological advancements. As the financial sector explores innovative solutions, the dedication to environmentally sustainable practices in CBDC designs has the potential to inspire similar eco-friendly approaches across various technological domains. Ultimately, CBDCs can emerge not only as transformative tools in financial transactions but also as catalysts for promoting the integration of green technologies and sustainable energy practices throughout the broader economy.

CONSIDERATIONS:

• DLT energy consumption: While CBDCs aim to reduce energy consumption, the underlying technology’s energy requirements should be addressed. Transitioning to more energy-efficient algorithms is crucial.
• Renewable energy infrastructure: The success of encouraging renewable energy adoption depends on the availability and scalability of renewable energy sources. Investments in renewable energy infrastructure should accompany CBDC implementations to ensure a sustainable energy transition.
• Collaboration with energy providers: Ensuring a stable and sustainable energy supply for CBDC operations necessitates vital collaboration with renewable energy providers. Forming partnerships and agreements with these providers is essential to bolster the reliability of renewable energy sources, thereby playing a pivotal role in the overall success of eco-friendly CBDC implementations.
• Technological innovation: Encouraging research and development in energy-efficient technologies can further enhance the environmental benefits of CBDCs and contribute to broader sustainability goals.

Table 3. CDBCs’ Environmental Impact.

CBDCs present a promising avenue for environmental sustainability in finance as provided in Table 3. CBDCs, through the elimination of physical currency, contribute to significant benefits. This includes reducing paper usage, mitigating deforestation, and lowering energy consumption, resulting in cost savings and more effective waste management. Additionally, CBDCs enhance energy efficiency and minimize emissions associated with physical cash, thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint. Furthermore, CBDCs empower central banks to incentivize sustainable practices, integrate ESG criteria, and streamline funding for renewable projects. Collaboration with renewable energy providers fosters a greener technological landscape. CBDCs not only transform financial systems but also serve as a model for eco-friendly advancements. To fully realize these benefits, strategic regulations, stakeholder involvement, and addressing technological challenges are crucial. Integrating CBDCs with renewable energy sources and sustainable practices can pave the way for a more environmentally conscious and resilient financial future.

CONCLUSION

This research has delved into the wide-ranging effects of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) on economic, social, and environmental fronts. CBDCs have the potential to revolutionize financial inclusion and transaction processes, offering new possibilities for transforming the global financial system.

Nonetheless, several key issues must be addressed for CBDCs to be successfully implemented. Privacy concerns, digital literacy, and environmental sustainability are critical aspects that need attention. It is essential to balance fostering innovation with protecting individual privacy rights. Bridging the digital divide through thorough education and ensuring fair access are crucial for achieving the inclusive potential of CBDCs.

Effective regulatory oversight is crucial for managing risks and ensuring the responsible use of CBDCs. Decisions regarding technology must be made carefully, prioritizing security and efficiency. Strong privacy protections are necessary to maintain public trust in these digital currencies.

The environmental impact of CBDCs also demands careful consideration, given the increasing focus on sustainability. Adopting strategies to reduce carbon footprints and exploring environmentally friendly technologies can support a more responsible adoption of CBDCs.

Looking forward, further research should focus on the evolving CBDC landscape, aiming to refine regulatory frameworks, advance technological solutions, and address emerging challenges. The significant role of CBDCs in shaping the future of monetary policy and financial systems highlights the need for continuous exploration and adaptation. By adopting a comprehensive approach, CBDCs can help create a global financial ecosystem that is inclusive, efficient, and sustainable.

REFERENCES

• Agur, I., Lavayssière, X., Villegas Bauer, G., Deodoro, J., Martinez Peria, S., Sandri, D., & Tourpe, H. (2023). Lessons from crypto assets for the design of energy-efficient digital currencies. Ecological Economics, 212.
• Allen, F., Gu, X., & Jagtiani, J. (2022). Fintech, cryptocurrencies, and CBDC: Financial structural transformation in China. Journal of International Money and Finance, 124, 102625.
• Auer, R., Haene, P., & Holden, H. (2021). Multi-CBDC arrangements and the future of cross-border payments. BIS papers, Bank for International Settlements, number 115.
• Auer, R., Cornelli, G., & Frost, J. (2020). Rise of the central bank digital currencies: drivers, approaches and technologies. CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP15363.
• Avanzo, S., Criscione, T., Linares, J., & Schifanella, C. (2023, September). Universal Basic Income in a Blockchain-Based Community Currency. In Proceedings of the 2023 ACM Conference on Information Technology for Social Good (pp. 223–232).
• Banet, J., & Lebeau, L. (2022). Central bank digital currency: Financial inclusion vs. disintermediation.
• Barr, M. S., Harris, A., Kelly, M., Macfarlane, E., & Ricketts, B. (2021). Central Bank of the Future Summary and Recommendations for Further Inquiry. Available at SSRN 3891849.
• Barrdear, J., & Kumhof, M. (2016). The macroeconomics of central bank-issued digital currencies.
• Beniak, P. (2019). Central bank digital currency and monetary policy: a literature review.
• Bhaskar, R., Hunjra, A. I., Bansal, S., & Pandey, D. K. (2022). Central Bank Digital Currencies: Agendas for future research. Research in International Business and Finance, 62, 101737.
• Bilotta, N., & Botti, F. (2021). The (near) future of central bank digital currencies: risks and opportunities for the global economy and society (p. 202). Peter Lang International Academic Publishers.
• Bindseil, U., Panetta, F., & Terol, I. (2021). Central Bank Digital Currency: functional scope, pricing and controls. ECB Occasional Paper, (2021/286).
• Borgonovo, E., Caselli, S., Cillo, A., Masciandaro, D., & Rabitti, G. (2021). Money, privacy, anonymity: What do experiments tell us?. Journal of Financial Stability, 56, 100934.
• Buckley, R. P., Arner, D. W., Zetzsche, D. A., Didenko, A. N., & Van Romburg, L. J. (2021). Sovereign digital currencies: reshaping the design of money and payments systems. Journal of Payments Strategy & Systems, 15(1), 7–22.
• Calle, G., & Eidan, D. (2020). Central Bank Digital Currency: an innovation in payments. R3 White Paper, April.
• Cunha, P. R., Melo, P., & Sebastião, H. (2021). From Bitcoin to Central Bank Digital Сurrencies: Making sense of the digital money revolution. Future Internet, 13(7), 165.
• Copeland, R. (2020). A global stablecoin: Revolutionary reserve asset or reinventing the wheel?. Journal of Payments Strategy & Systems, 13(4), 310–321.
• Corbet, S., & Larkin, C. (2023). The Impact of Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) Development on Cryptocurrency: A Taxonomic Analysis. Review of Corporate Finance, 3(4), 597–626.
• Cukierman, A. (2020). Reflections on welfare and political economy aspects of a central bank digital currency. The Manchester School, 88, 114–125.
• Davoodalhosseini, S. M. (2022). Central bank digital currency and monetary policy. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 142, 104150.
• Darbha, S., & Arora, R. (2020). Privacy in CBDC technology (№2020–9). Bank of Canada.
• Elsayed, A. H., & Nasir, M. A. (2022). Central bank digital currencies: An agenda for future research. Research in International Business and Finance, 62, 101736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2022.101736
• Elsayed A. H. & Ricardo M. Sousa. (2022). International monetary policy and cryptocurrency markets: dynamic and spillover effects. The European Journal of Finance. DOI: 10.1080/1351847X.2022.2068375.
• Fantacci, L., & Gobbi, L. (2021). Stablecoins, central bank digital currencies and US dollar hegemony: The geopolitical stake of innovations in money and payments. Accounting, Economics, and Law: A Convivium, (0), 20200053.
• Fernández-Villaverde, J., Sanches, D., Schilling, L., & Uhlig, H. (2021). Central bank digital currency: Central banking for all?. Review of Economic Dynamics, 41, 225–242.
• Fu, S., Xu, H. X., Li, P., & Ma, T. (2019). A survey on anonymity of digital currency. Chinese Journal of Computers, 42(5), 1045–1062.
• Ginneken, C. L. (2019). Settlement of cross-border transactions through Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC): analysis from a risk management perspective (Master’s thesis, University of Twente).
• Horváth, D. (2023). Money in the digital age: Exploring the potential of central bank digital currency with a focus on social adaptation and education. Sustainable Futures, 6, 100136.
• Hsu, S., Sheu, C., & Yoon, J. (2021). Risk spillovers between cryptocurrencies and traditional currencies and gold under different global economic conditions. The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, 57, 101443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.najef.2021.101443
• Huang, D. Z. (2021). Environmental, social and governance (ESG) activity and firm performance: A review and consolidation. Accounting & finance, 61(1), 335–360.
• Jabbar, A., Geebren, A., Hussain, Z., Dani, S., & Ul-Durar, S. (2023). Investigating individual privacy within CBDC: A privacy calculus perspective. Research in International Business and Finance, 64, 101826.
• Jaimes Becerra, J. R., Campaña, J., Renteria Valencia, N. M., & Intriago Alcivar, J. M. (2023). Research of the Development of Green Central Bank Digital Currency, Cbdc. Cbdc (March 3, 2023). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4412456
• Jin, S. Y., & Xia, Y. (2022). CEV Framework: A central bank digital currency evaluation and verification framework with a focus on consensus algorithms and operating architectures. IEEE Access, 10, 63698–63714.
• Keister, T., & Monnet, C. (2022). Central bank digital currency: Stability and information. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 142, 104501.
• Kim, Y. S., & Kwon, O. (2019). Central bank digital currency and financial stability. Bank of Korea WP, 6.
• Kochergin, D. (2021). Central banks digital currencies: World experience. Mirovaia ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 65(5), 68–77.
• Koziuk, V., & Ivashuk, Y. (2022). Does it matter for CBDC design? Privacy-anonymity preferences from the side of hierarchies and egalitarian cultural patterns. Economics, 10(1), 35–53.
• Kumhof, M., & Noone, C. (2021). Central bank digital currencies — Design principles for financial stability. Economic Analysis and Policy, 71, 553–572.
• Laboure, M., Müller, P., Heinz, G., Singh, S., & Köhling, S. (2021). Cryptocurrencies and CBDC: The Route Ahead. Global Policy, 12(5), 663–676.
• Larina, O. I., & Akimov, O. M. (2020). Digital money at the present stage: Key risks and development direction. Finance: theory and practice, 24(4), 18–30.
• Lee, S., & Park, J. (2022). Environmental Implications of a Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC). World Bank Group Korea Office Innovation and Technology Note Series, №8. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10986/37702
• Lee, Y., Son, B., Jang, H., Byun, J., Yoon, T., & Lee, J. (20Son21). Atomic cross-chain settlement model for central banks digital currency. Information Sciences, 580, 838–856.
• Lee, Y., Son, B., Park, S., Lee, J., & Jang, H. (2021a). A Survey on Security and Privacy in Blockchain-based Central Bank Digital Currencies. J. Internet Serv. Inf. Secur., 11(3), 16–29.
• Li, S., & Huang, Y. (2021). The genesis, design and implications of China’s central bank digital currency. China Economic Journal, 14(1), 67–77.
• Luu, H. N., Do, D. D., Pham, T., Ho, V. X., & Dinh, Q. A. (2023). Cultural values and the adoption of central bank digital currency. Applied Economics Letters, 30(15), 2024–2029.
• Masciandaro, D. (2018). Central Bank digital cash and cryptocurrencies: insights from a new Baumol–Friedman demand for money. Australian Economic Review, 51(4), 540–550.
• McLaughlin, T. (2021). Two paths to tomorrow’s money. Journal of Payments Strategy & Systems, 15(1), 23–36.
• Meaning, J., Dyson, B., Barker, J., & Clayton, E. (2018). Broadening narrow money: monetary policy with a central bank digital currency.
• Meier, S., & Kondova, G. (2023, February). The Potential Impact of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) on Economic and Financial Sector Development. In International Congress on Information and Communication Technology (pp. 427–434). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
• Náñez Alonso, S. L., Jorge-Vazquez, J., & Reier Forradellas, R. F. (2020). Detection of financial inclusion vulnerable rural areas through an access to cash index: solutions based on the pharmacy network and a CBDC. evidence based on Ávila (Spain). Sustainability, 12(18), 7480.
• Niepelt, D. (2020). Monetary policy with reserves and CBDC: Optimality, equivalence, and politics. CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP15457, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3737590
• Ozili, P.K. Circular Economy and Central Bank Digital Currency. Circ.Econ.Sust. 2, 1501–1516 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-022-00170-0
• Ozili, P. K. (2023). eNaira central bank digital currency (CBDC) for financial inclusion in Nigeria. In Digital Economy, Energy and Sustainability: Opportunities and Challenges (pp. 41–54). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
• Panetta, F. (2018). 21st century cash: Central banking, technological innovation and digital currencies. Do we need central bank digital currency, 28–31.
• Peneder, M. (2022). Digitization and the evolution of money as a social technology of account. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 32(1), 175–203.
• Parker, P. D. (2023). Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDC) and Socialism: Implications for Economic and Social Change. Available at SSRN 4451739.
• Peneder, M. (2022). Digitization and the evolution of money as a social technology of account. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 32(1), 175–203.
• Piazzesi, M., & Schneider, M. (2020). Credit lines, bank deposits or CBDC? competition and efficiency in modern payment systems. Unpublished, Stanford University.
• Pocher, N., & Veneris, A. (2021). Privacy and transparency in CBDCs: A regulation-by-design aml/cft scheme. IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, 19(2), 1776–1788.
• Qian, Y. (2019). Central Bank Digital Currency: optimization of the currency system and its issuance design. China economic journal, 12(1), 1–15.
• Šapkauskienė, A., Prialgauskaitė, I. (2023). Central Bank Digital Currency: research streams — a literature review. Socialiniai tyrimai, 46(1), 68–87.
• Sarkar, B., Guchhait, R., Sarkar, M., & Cárdenas-Barrón, L. E. (2019). How does an industry manage the optimum cash flow within a smart production system with the carbon footprint and carbon emission under logistics framework?. International Journal of Production Economics, 213, 243–257.
• Shen, W., & Hou, L. (2021). China’s central bank digital currency and its impacts on monetary policy and payment competition: Game changer or regulatory toolkit?. Computer Law & Security Review, 41, 105577.
• Shilina, M. (2023, January 12). Environmental Impact of Digital Currencies: A Closer Look at CBDCs. Paradigm. Retrieved from https://medium.com/paradigm-research/environmental-impact-of-digital-currencies-a-closer-look-at-cbdcs-83458c4cbc9a
• Schroeder, S. K. (2023). Greening Monetary Policy: CBDCs and Community Development Banks. Journal of Economic Issues, 57(2), 654–660.
• Sinelnikova-Muryleva, E. V. (2020). Central bank digital currencies: Potential risks and benefits. VOPROSY ECONOMIKI, (4).
• Sissoko, C. (2017). The nature of money in a convertible currency world. Available at SSRN 3056081.
• Son, J., Ryu, D., & Webb, R. I. (2023). Central bank digital currency: Payment choices and commercial bank profitability. International Review of Financial Analysis, 90, 102874.
• Sun, H., Mao, H., Bai, X., Chen, Z., Hu, K., & Yu, W. (2017, December). Multi-blockchain model for central bank digital currency. In 2017 18th International conference on parallel and distributed computing, applications and technologies (PDCAT) (pp. 360–367). IEEE.
• Tan, B. (2023). Central bank digital currency and financial inclusion. International Monetary Fund.
• Tercero-Lucas, D. (2023). Central bank digital currencies and financial stability in a modern monetary system. Journal of Financial Stability, 69, 101188.
• Themistocleous, M., Rupino da Cunha, P., Tabakis, E., & Papadaki, M. (2023). Towards cross-border CBDC interoperability: insights from a multivocal literature review. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 36(5), 1296–1318.
• Tong, W., & Jiayou, C. (2021). A study of the economic impact of central bank digital currency under global competition. China Economic Journal, 14(1), 78–101.
• Tronnier, F. (2021). Privacy in payment in the age of central bank digital currency. In Privacy and Identity Management: 15th IFIP WG 9.2, 9.6/11.7, 11.6/SIG 9.2. 2 International Summer School, Maribor, Slovenia, September 21–23, 2020, Revised Selected Papers 15 (pp. 96–114). Springer International Publishing.
• Tronnier, F., Recker, M., & Hamm, P. (2020). Towards Central Bank Digital Currency–A Systematic Literature Review.
• Tsang, A., Frost, T., & Cao, H. (2023). Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) disclosure: A literature review. The British Accounting Review, 55(1), 101149.
• Viñuela, C., Sapena, J., & Wandosell, G. (2020). The future of money and the central bank digital currency dilemma. Sustainability, 12(22), 9697.
• Wagner, E., Bruggink, D., & Benevelli, A. (2021). Preparing euro payments for the future: A blueprint for a digital euro. Journal of Payments Strategy & Systems, 15(2), 165–187.
• Wang, Y., Lucey, B. M., Vigne, S. A., & Yarovaya, L. (2022). The Effects of Central Bank Digital Currencies News on Financial Markets. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 180, 121715.
• Wanat, E. (2021). Are Crypto-Assets Green Enough?–An analysis of draft EU Regulation on markets in crypto assets from the perspective of the European Green Deal. OER Osteuropa Recht, 67(2), 237–250.
• Williamson, S. D. (2022). Central bank digital currency and flight to safety. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 142, 104146.
• Yao, Q. (2018). A systematic framework to understand central bank digital currency. Science China Information Sciences, 61, 1–8.
• Yamaoka, H. (2019). The future of central banking. Accounting, Economics, and Law: A Convivium, 13(2), 103–132.
• Yang, Q., Zheng, M., & Wang, Y. (2023). The Role of CBDC in Green Finance and Sustainable Development. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 59(15), 4158–4173.
• Yang, J., & Zhou, G. (2022). A study on the influence mechanism of CBDC on monetary policy: An analysis based on e-CNY. Plos one, 17(7).
• Zams, B. M., Indrastuti, R., Pangersa, A. G., Hasniawati, N. A., Zahra, F. A., & Fauziah, I. A. (2020). Designing central bank digital currency for Indonesia: the delphi–analytic network process. Buletin Ekonomi Moneter Dan Perbankan, 23(3), 413–440.