The Correlation of Brain Mechanisms and Different Linguistic Competences

There are four main components of language (phonology, semantics, grammar, pragmatics). The brain at different developmental phases is sensitive to different language components.

Therefore, the application of the concept that the critical period impacts the learning of a second language should consider the language components involved.

Although many studies have found evidence that the sooner one starts learning, the better the outcome (Birdsong & Molis, 2001; Flege et al., 1999; Johnson & Newport, 1989/1991; Oyama, 1976), such phenomena exist only in syntax (Birdsong & Molis, 2001; Flege et al., 1999; Johnson & Newport, 1989/1991) and phonological competence (Flege et al., 1999; Oyama, 1976; Weber-Fox & Neville, 2001). Evidence of lexical competence is very rarely seen.

So even if a critical period truly exists in second language learning, it is only limited to the performance in syntax and phonology and does not involve the concept of lexical competence. Therefore, the impact of CPH pertains to an only certain area of language learning, and not the whole learning process.

Flege and Fletcher (1992) requested English native speakers to assess the level of foreign accent in people with English as a second language. Results showed that an obvious foreign accent was found in 5–8-year-old beginners.

In addition to using the original grammatical judgment task of Johnson and Newport to assess the morphosyntax competence, Flege, Yeni-Komshian, and Liu (1999) measured the performance of the subjects in pronunciation in their research.

Similarly, they requested English native speakers to assess the level of foreign accent in the subjects and discussed the influence of the learning age on pronunciation.The main finding of Flege et al.: the age of learning had a greater influence on pronunciation than on morphosyntax.

This finding demonstrates that in considering the influence of learning age on second language learning, must take into account the language component under discussion.

When analyzing language learning, should not take language learning as a gestalt concept; rather, should take the language components and do a certain degree of division. This is because different components related to different operating mechanisms of the brain and the variables affected are not the same (Purves et al., 2008).

The expression of human language is basically the connection between sound and meaning. In the process of connecting, the agents needed include sound (phonology), word formation (morphology), and syntax. Pronunciation and meter are classified into the category of sound, word formation and syntax are part of the morphosyntax, and semantics is related to lexical competence. These limited components are combined to make an infinite expression. The governing rule is the so-called language grammar. Language grammar generally refers to the composition and combination of the components of each language.

To make a constructive discussion on the issue of CPH for second language learning, the components of language must be clearly demarcated.

In the different categories of language components, the learning of pronunciation, syntax, and lexicon is affected by age to a different degree.

The starting age of learning exerts a greater limit on pronunciation than on syntax (Flege et al., 1999). Researchers like Asher and Garcia (1969), McLaughlin (1984), Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991), Tahta, Wood & Lowenthal (1981a, 1981b), and Scovel (1999) also recognized the impact of age on phonological competence.

The argument about the “critical period of accent” is less controversial. Researchers who accept the ‘critical period of accent’ hold the same concept with the researchers believing in “CPH for second language learning”. Regarding the exact age for a critical period of accent, there is also a great difference as to when it is.

For example, Tahta et al. (1981a, 1981b) assumed that the “critical period of accent” is the age of 6, Curtiss (1980) thought that it’s the age of 10, while Scovel (1969) said before 12 years old.

References

Asher, J., Garcia, R. (1969). The optimal age to learn a foreign accent. The Modern Language Journal, 53, 3–17.

Birdsong, D. & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 235–249.

Curtiss, S. (1980). The critical period and feral children. Cognitive Linguistics, 2, 21–36.

Flege, J.E., & Fletcher, K.L., (1992). Talker and listener effects on degree of perceived foreign accent. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 91, 370–389.

Flege, J.E., Yeni-Komshian, G.H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78–104.

Johnson, J.S. & Newport, E.L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: the influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60–99.

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London: Longman.

McLaughlin, B. (1984). Second language acquisition in childhood. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Oyama, S. (1976). A sensitive period for the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5, 261–283.

Purves, D., Augustine, G.J., Fitzpatrick, D., et al., (eds.) (2008). Neuroscience. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

Scovel, T. (1969). Foreign accents, language acquisition, and cerebral dominance. Language Learning, 19, 245–254.

Scovel, T. (1999).”The younger the better” myth and bilingual education. In Gonzalez, R., & Melis, I. (eds.). Language ideologies: Critical perspectives on the English only movement. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Tahta, S., Wood, M., & Lowenthal, K. (1981a). Foreign accents: Factors relating to transfer of accent from the first language to a second language. Language and Speech, 24, 265–272.

Tahta, S., Wood, M., & Lowenthal, K. (1981b). Age changes in the ability to replicate foreign pronunciation and intonation. Language and Speech, 24, 363–372.

Weber-Fox, C. & Neville, H.J. (2001). Sensitive periods differentiate processing of open and closed class words: An ERP study in bilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 44, 1338–1353.

Originally published at http://poeticmindfulness.wordpress.com on October 8, 2020.