Academic Papers on Issues of Political Representation

Here is a curated list of academic papers, and their key points, on issues of political representation

On Political Representation(1999)- Geoffrey Brennan and Alan Hamlin:

• Puts forward three propositions: Individuals differ, in terms of their capacity for ‘civic virtue’. The extent to which persons are virtuous is detectable by others. And that voters have a systematic tendency to express support for candidates who are perceived as having more civic virtue.
• Representation is conceptualized not in statistical terms but through the selection of representatives who exhibit competence and virtue, characteristics that are attractive to voters and lead to public-interested political outcomes.
• The article suggests a shift towards a more general and heterogeneous account of individual motivation, alongside expressive voting, to support representative democracy.

Beyond representativeness? Trends in political representation(2003) — Rudy B. Andeweg

• Due to the erosion of representation as ‘standing for,’ there is a need to revive the concept of representation as ‘acting for.’
• The paper develops a new two-dimensional repertoire of modes of political representation. Representation is viewed as a relationship between the citizen (principal) and the representative (agent), defined by its direction (from below or from above) and the moment of its creation (ex ante or ex post).
• The paper argues that uncertainty about citizen preferences and the transformation of representatives (political parties) into parastatal agents push towards representation from above. Additionally, the unpredictability of the political agenda and Europeanization push towards representation ex post.
• If political representation is becoming increasingly ex alto (from above) and ex post (after the fact), it raises new questions about constitutional design. The parliamentary system of government, common in Europe, relies more on ex ante (before the fact) than ex post controls. The shift towards ex alto/ex post representation without better mechanisms for accountability could blur the line between elitist democracy and oligarchy.
• The paper highlights the need for more and better mechanisms for ex post accountability to prevent the blurring of democracy and oligarchy. Most current political reform proposals, except for measures like the abrogative referendum or popular veto, do not address this need.

What Are the Effects of Educational Mobility on Political Interest and Participation in the Indian Electorate(2012) -Reetika Syal:

• Links educational mobility to increased political interest and participation, suggesting it contributes to the democratic upsurge.
• There is a strong correlation between the literacy of parents and the likelihood of their children being literate. For instance, if the father is literate, there is a significantly higher chance (92.7%) of the respondent being literate compared to if the father is illiterate (51.2%). Both parents’ education levels significantly affect a child’s education. If both parents are literate, the likelihood of the child being literate is 96.5%. This supports the argument that higher parental education positively impacts children’s educational outcomes.
• Literate individuals are more likely to have an interest in politics, which translates into greater participation in election-related activities. This is supported by data showing a higher likelihood of political interest among literate respondents.
• Increasing access to educational opportunities in India is likely to produce well-educated and informed citizens capable of making thoughtful political choices. Education can help overcome socioeconomic constraints and enable active political participation.
• Despite the positive impact of education, demographic factors like caste, class, gender, income, and locality continue to influence political interest and participation in India. Education alone may not eliminate these barriers but can help mitigate them.
• Education can instill a sense of responsibility in citizens, encouraging them to exercise political choices and demand accountability from government representatives. This can strengthen political consciousness across all sectors of society.
• Education has the potential to uplift the lower segments of the population and enhance their political engagement, contributing to a more inclusive and representative democracy in India.

Political representation in India: Enlarging the perspective(2016) — Stéphanie Tawa Lama-Rewal

• Recent democratic theory has seen a renewed interest in political representation, emerging after a focus on participation and deliberation. This shift is partly due to a perceived “crisis of representation,” marked by low electoral participation, declining political party membership, and diminished trust in the political system.
• Theoretical works have broadened the concept of representation, emphasizing its dynamic nature and performative aspects. Key contributions include:

Michael Saward’s concept of the “representative claim,” viewing representation as a dynamic process and a performance.

Iris Marion Young’s recognition that representation is inherent in participatory politics.

Nadia Urbinati and Mark Warren’s focus on the multiplication of representational practices beyond electoral venues.

Jane Mansbridge’s systemic approach to representation, considering both elected and non-elected representatives.

• In India, the concept of a “crisis of representation” is less evident. Electoral participation has increased, especially among the socially underprivileged, challenging the notion of declining political engagement. The rise of new political parties like the Aam Aadmi Party and movements such as Anna Hazare’s anti-corruption campaign reflect ongoing political mobilization and a belief in democratic reform.

The Limits of Political Representation(2016)- Howard Schweber:

• Representation as a political concept inherently involves limitations, starting with the boundaries of self-representation. The drawing of a representative map is legitimated by norms that justify both exclusion and inclusion. The evaluation of the norms and their realization forms the basis for normative challenges to the legitimacy of representation.
• Assessing representation requires considering the character of the asserted constituency, the relationship of authorization, and the legitimating principles involved in the construction of the representative map.
• Political representation involves a relationship among actors capable of engaging in authorization in accordance with representative map norms. Activities of representatives include advocacy, deliberation, accountability mechanisms, or mediation in formal or informal settings.
• The limits of political representation exclude activities or relationships beyond its boundaries. Representation is inherently normative, implicating standards for legitimation and legitimacy as bases for contestation, critique, or analysis.
• The article frames the normative inquiry without resolving it, noting that representation is not necessarily the highest or an unqualified good. Instances may arise, such as “authoritarian environmentalism,” where the intrinsic value may outweigh the contingent value of democratic self-rule. These questions extend beyond the article’s inquiry.

Political Representation in Indian Democracy: A View from the Margins(2019) — Ishita Mehrotra

• The article highlights contemporary challenges to democracy such as authoritarianism, extreme polarization, and growing economic and social inequalities. The main arguments are:
• Democratic institutions and processes have been captured by elite forces
• There has been a widening of democracy given the increasing number of representatives across stakeholders, such as caste, class and gender; this, however, has neither deepened democratic functions nor ensured effective representation.
• Dalit women associate with politics and with their representatives through the lens of caste, class and gender.
• Dalit women do not speak the language of formal institutional politics. Their understanding of representatives and politics is drawn from their everyday experiences and observations. Their political participation is limited by a patriarchal ideology. Nonetheless, dalit women, mostly agricultural laborers, are politically conscious, and they are aware of their marginalization and of their exploitation. Their politics has to do with issues of wages, availability of agricultural employment, public healthcare and school facilities, accessing public schemes and resources and so on.

A Crisis of Representation: Interests, Identities and Politics(2019) — Vidhu verma:

• Examines the context of political representation for marginalized groups in India, particularly focusing on the Dalit community. Justifications for reservations must be contextualized within historical and contemporary forms of discrimination. There is a need to distinguish between inequalities arising from the market and those from the caste structure.
• Social media and the internet increase political engagement and challenge traditional representative government by leveling the playing field among amateurs and experts.
• Encourages marginalized groups to borrow ideas from global digital movements to innovate and enhance representative democracy. The Dalit movement and other disadvantaged groups could adopt the internet-based movement slogan ‘participate but do not delegate,’ emphasizing active citizen intervention in managing public goods.
• Need to address the lack of solidarity and intersectional approaches in civil society activism to advance social justice policies effectively.

Political Representation(2021) — Suzanne Dovi:

• Discusses different forms of Representation, (Formalistic Representation: which focuses on the procedures for authorizing representatives and holding them accountable, Symbolic Representation: Concerns the ways a representative stands for the represented, invoking responses from the represented based on acceptance​​, Descriptive Representation: Examines the resemblance between the representative and the represented, focusing on shared characteristics and experiences​​. Substantive Representation: Involves the actions taken by representatives to advance the policy preferences and interests of their constituents​​.

The power of political representation(2023) — Lawrence Hamilton, Monica Brito Vieira, Lisa Disch, Lasse Thomassen, Nadia Urbinati:

• A critical element of a non-elitist theory of democracy is the agency of the represented. Mobilization through representation should turn the represented into active participants in public life, ensuring that representation is meaningful and empowering​​.
• It discusses the importance of political parties as primary agents of partisan association and value polarization. It critiques the common belief that partisan sorting and political gridlock are due to voter incompetence or misinformation. Instead, it argues that citizens care about the processes by which disagreements are settled, suggesting that normative values implied in compromise processes may be socialized independently of politics​​.
• It emphasizes the need for democratic representation to account for conflicts and disagreements within society. It argues that representative democracy should foster reflexivity and judgment among citizens to protect them from elite manipulation​​.
• Disch introduces the concept of “constituency effects” to describe how acts of political representation solicit groups and constitute interests, rather than merely registering pre-existing social cleavages. This concept underscores the power of representation in shaping social and political identities​​.