INDIAN SOCIETY — SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

Know about all the aspects of Indian Society and salient features.

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Introduction

Indian Society is pluralistic. Indian society is distinguished for its capacity for tolerance and acceptance, as well as its social cohesion, which makes it exceptional in its ability to preserve its culture.

• Amid the complexities and so much diversity among the nation, widely accepted cultural themes, the feeling of oneness, brotherhood, and values of the constitution binds individuals and enhances social harmony and order.
• After independence, several demands for the reorganization of states based on cultural similarity, linguistic identity, and others emerged from different parts of India.
• Though the government restructured various states and also formed new states, cultural units have been intact in India to this day.
• Indian society is an exemplification of multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-ideological constructs, which co-exist, at once striving to strike harmony and also retain their individuality.
• Indian society is a sum total of all microcosmic societies existing in its lap which may be as diverse as from an Island tribe Andaman Nicobar living in a primitive area to the ultra-modern coterie of metropolitan Mumbai.

Significance of Society

• Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as “a human product, and nothing but a human product, that yet continuously acts upon its producers.”
• India has been the land of immigrants and invaders from across the world which has resulted in the infusion of diverse cultures to this land which in turn made India an integrated society. It can be seen in terms of its depiction as a “salad bowl model” unlike the “melting pot” of Western society.
• The call of “Vasudhaiv Kutumbkam”, “Sarva Dharma Sambhavah” and “golden mean” in all dealing make Indian society most welcoming when there is an increasing case of “clash of civilizations” across the globe.

Salient Features of Indian Society

Multi-Ethnic Society

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• An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other, usually based on a common language or dialect, history, society, culture or nation.
• A society with the co-existence of a wide variety of racial groups is a Multi-ethnic society. India is home to almost all racial profiles.

Multi-Lingual Society

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Most present-day societies are multilingual, having diversity in languages. Language is a dominant source of identity so much so that the present form of India into states represents the linguistic map of India.

Various reasons for multilingualism can be:

• Despite Hindi being the official language of the country, the Constitution recognizes 22 languages.
• More than 1600 languages are spoken in India.
• However, the number of languages in use is much higher, and the Census 2011 identified about 122 languages of Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto — Burmese and Semi-to-Hamitic families.

Multi-Class Society

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According to Karl Max– ‘Man is a class animal,’ i.e., his status, age, education, etc. are not the same in society.

The class system is a stratification of society based on education, property, business/work, etc.

In general, there are three classes –

• Upper class
• Middle class
• Lower class

Hierarchy

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Age: Members of the family shower enormous respect on the elders, due to their age and wisdom acquired during their life period.

Gender: Patriarchal in nature. Men hold positions of power and authority.

Language: Hindi language is used to give respect according to age.

Caste System: These are rigid social groups characterised by hereditary transmission of life, occupation and social status.

Unity in Diversity

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“Unity in Diversity” is a phrase implying unity among people with diverse cultural, religious, and other demographic differences.

Various factors that contribute to Unity In diversity can be as follows:

• Geographical factor
• Cultural factor
• Religious factor
• Political factor
• Language Factor

Religious diversity:

• In India, religion holds utmost importance, and therefore this is the reason that India got the title of “Land of spirituality and philosophy” all over the world
• India is a multi-religious country consisting of Hindus (79.9%), Muslims (14.2%), Christians (2.32%), Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.6%) and Jains (0.41%).
• Further, The Hindus themselves are divided into Vaishnavas, Shaivites, Shaktas, Smartas, etc. and the Muslims are divided into Shias, Sunnis, Ahmadiyas, etc.
• However, Religious diversity has posed constant challenges in the country in the form of communalism and communal violence.
• Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the country by law and custom; the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a Fundamental right.

Linguistic diversity:

• It is the most outstanding feature of India’s diversity and, in the past, has been a major source of agitation.
• According to the 2011 census, more than 19,500 languages or dialects are spoken in India as mother tongues.
• There are 121 languages which are spoken by 10,000 or more people in India. Of 22 the official languages have been recognized as official languages under the 8th schedule, and about 197 are endangered.
• However,71 per cent population in the country has one of the 22 scheduled languages as their mother tongue.
• India has the world’s second-highest number of languages, after Papua New Guinea.
• However, on the other hand, linguistic diversity has also been a source of conflict. It has posed many administrative and political problems in India.
• Recently, Gorkhaland agitation was one of the recent examples of it.
• Though there is mysterious diversity in languages in India, there is a fundamental unity found in the ideas and expressions in them.

Geographical diversity

• With an area of 3,287,263 square kilometres, India is a vast country with a great diversity of physical features like dry deserts, evergreen forests, snowy Himalayas, along the coast, and fertile plains.
• The great variety of climate topography and consequently varied conditions of life prepared the Indian psyche to accept differences.
• The unique geographic demographics also host a unique ecosystem rich with vegetation, wildlife, rare herbs, and a large variety of birds.
• The network of shrines and pilgrim centres spread across the country has been an important source of unity.

Cultural Diversity:

• Indian culture is one of the oldest and most unique. In India, there is amazing cultural diversity throughout the country.
• The South, North, and Northeast have their own distinct cultures, and almost every state has carved its own cultural niche.
• The years of foreign rule, religious movements, and spiritual discoveries in the ancient land of India have given way to a rich culture of social habits, festivals, and customs.
• Indian culture has never been rigid, and that’s why it’s surviving with pride in the modern It timely imbibes the qualities of various other cultures and comes out as a contemporary and acceptable tradition. The flexibility and movement with time have made Indian Culture fashionable and acceptable too.

Caste and Racial Diversity:

• Refer to salient features of Indian society.
• India is a country of castes

In addition to the above-described major forms of diversity, India also has a diversity of many other types like settlement patterns — tribal, rural, urban; marriage and kinship patterns along religious and regional lines and so on.

FACTORS LEADING TO UNITY AMIDST DIVERSITY IN INDIA

• Constitutional identity: — The same constitution and Parliament govern the entire territory of it. Moreover, the Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens, which contributes to unity among people amidst such diversity in India. The unified judiciary, Bureaucratic, defence structure, and Parliamentary form of government providing for the federal structure are other factors that promote unity in India.
• Inter-State mobility: — The Constitution guarantees freedom to move throughout the territory of India under 19 (1) (d), which promotes a sense of unity and brotherhood among the masses.
• Religious co-existence: — India is a country where people are largely influenced by religious principles and doctrines. Freedom of religion and religious practice guaranteed by the Constitution promotes religious co-existence with peaceful means.
• Modernization and Urbanization: — A relationship between cultural modernization, urbanization, and industrialization is assumed as a matter of logical necessity. They provide more opportunities for employment and a more modern Western lifestyle. These interdependent relationships are supportive of different communities with qualities of instant help.
• Fairs and festivals: — India is noted as the land of festivals, and Indians too enjoy every festival with much zeal and fervour. Due to the varied culture and heritage of India, there are various religious as well as social festivals that are confined to specific regions of the country. Festival celebrations help in strengthening unity among the Indians. Festivals like Diwali, Eid, and Christmas are enjoyed by all with the same spirit and fervour.
• Climatic integration via monsoon: — The flora and fauna in the entire Indian subcontinent, agricultural practices, and the life of people, including their festivities, revolve around the monsoon season in India.
• Sports and Cinema: These are followed by millions in the country, thus, acting as a binding force across the length and breadth of India.

MODELS OF ACCOMMODATION FOR DIVERSITY

Salad Bowl Model:

• In the salad bowl model, different cultures are brought together — like salad ingredients — but do not form together into a single homogeneous culture; each culture keeps its distinct qualities
• This model of racial integration can be described as a salad bowl, with people of different cultures living in harmony, like lettuce, tomatoes, and carrots in a salad.
• In this type of model, cultures do not mix at all.
• For example, This kind of model is followed up in the UK, where regions like Scotland, and Northern Ireland are different, and intermingling is less between people of these regions.

Melting Pot Model:

• A melting pot is a society where many different types of people blend as one.
• For example, America is often called a melting pot because, with time, generations of immigrants have melted together: they have abandoned their cultures to become assimilated into American society.

Mosaic Model of Society:

• Mosaic is a form of art where different rocks of different colours are joined together and form an image.
• This model is the mix of ethnic groups, languages, and cultures that coexist within society.
• The idea of a cultural mosaic is intended to suggest a form of multiculturalism.
• This model emphasizes integration with isolation.
• Here, a new identity is created, but the original identity is not lost.
• For example: In India, different cultures like Bengali, Kashmiri, and Punjabi coexist with their original identity of being Indian

THREATS TO INDIA’S UNITY

• Regionalism — Regionalism highlights the interests of a particular region/region over national interests. It has posed constant challenges to the country in the form of communalism and communal violence. If regionalism challenges the fundamental tenets of the constitution like sovereignty, unity, and security of India, it becomes divisive and disintegrative.
• Divisive politics — Political manipulation has projected one religion against the other, which results in communal riots, mutual distrust, and the disintegration of Indian society and country. Communal antagonism has posed a serious challenge to national integration in India. Ascriptive identities such as caste, religion, etc. are evoked by politicians to garner votes.
• Development deficit — Inadequate economic policies and consequent economic disparities can lead to the backwardness of a region, further threatening the unity of the nation.
• Ethnic differentiation and nativism — Ethnic conflict is one of the major threats to peace and security. Ethnic conflicts are often accompanied by gross human rights violations, such as genocide and crimes against humanity, and by economic decline, state failure, environmental problems, and refugee flows. Violent ethnic conflict leads to tremendous human suffering. Different language factor also sometimes poses a great threat to the unity of the nation. It can be used for political mobilization in India. E.g. frequent clashes between Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam.
• Geographical isolation — India has diverse geography from snow-covered mountains in the north to coastal plains in the south. Later, Regional consciousness and regional identity evolved due to geography. Geography, when combined with the ideology of aggressive regionalism, acts as a divisive factor. E.g. The North-East that is geographically isolated from the rest of the country, i.e., the Siliguri corridor (Chicken’s Neck) acts as a source of disintegration and conflict.
• Inter-religious conflicts — Inter-religious conflict not only hamper relations between two communities by spreading fear and mistrust but also hinders the secular fabric of the country. g. Sikh-Hindu conflict in Punjab, Religious riots over Babri masjid and Ram mandir, Gujrat riots etc.
• The problem is not diversity per se, but the handling of diversity in Indian society. The problems of regionalism, communalism, ethnic conflicts etc. have arisen because the fruits of development haven’t been distributed equally or the cultures of some groups haven’t been accorded due recognition

Caste System

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Ironically the term ‘Caste’ itself is not an Indian one, coming from the Portuguese ‘Casta’ meaning, ‘race’ or ‘pure stock’.

Traditional theory: Caste system, where the 4 system is of divine origin and is an extension of the varna system, where the 4 varnas originated from the body of Lord Bramha.

Racial theory: Rig Vedic literature stresses the differences between the Arya and Aryans (Dasa), in terms of their complexion, speech, religious practices, and physical features which later developed into the caste system.

Political theory: The caste system is a clever device invented by the Brahmins and Kshatriyas in order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social hierarchy,

Occupational theory: The origin of the caste system can be found in the nature and quality of social work performed by various groups of people. Those professions which were regarded as better and respectable made the persons who performed them superior to those who were engaged in dirty professions.

Evolutionary theory: The caste system did not come into existence all of a sudden or at a particular date, but it is the result of a long process of social evolution based on:

• Hereditary occupations
• The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure
• Lack of rigid unitary control of the state
• Beliefs in reincarnation and the doctrine of Karma
• Ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship, and the sacramental meal
• Clash of races, colour prejudices and conquest
• Static nature of Hindu society
• The geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula
• Foreign invasions
• Rural social structure

Features of Caste System

• Segmental division of society: The society is divided into various small social called castes to which the membership is determined by the consideration of birth.
  Example: One can only become Brahmin only by birth
• Endogamy: Endogamy, i.e. the members of a caste or sub-caste should marry their own caste or sub-caste.
  Example: Pratiloma Marriage, Hypergamy Marriage, though they find mention Vedic texts but Inter-caste marriage was strictly prohibited in the Gupta period
• Hereditary status and occupation: Megasthenes mention hereditary occupation as one of the two features of the caste system, the other being endogamy.
• Restriction on food and drink: Usually a caste would not accept cooked food from another caste that stands lower than itself on the social scale, due to the notion of getting polluted.
  Example: In North India, Brahmin would accept pakka food (cooked in ghee) only from some castes lower than his own. However, no individual would accept kachcha (cooked in water) food prepared by an inferior caste.
• Concept of Purity and Pollution: Higher castes claimed to have ritual, spiritual and racial purity which they maintained by keeping the lower castes away through the notion of pollution. Even his shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man.
  Example: This is where the notion of untouchability takes birth
• Jati Panchayat: The status of each caste is carefully protected, not only by caste laws but also by the conventions through a governing body called Jati Panchayat. Example: Kuldriya in Madhya Pradesh and Jokhila in South Rajasthan.

Role of the Caste System

• Means of livelihood: It has accommodated multiple communities by ensuring each of them a monopoly of a specific means of livelihood. Example: The work of a goldsmith belongs to sonar, blacksmith to lohar. This provides a monopoly on work.
• Social security: It is the individual’s caste that canalizes his choice in marriage, plays the roles of the state club, the orphanage, and provides health insurance benefits and funerals. Example: The responsibility of marriage(arranged) in India is among relatives and caste members. Also, relatives help in times of need.
• Preservation of culture: It has handed over the knowledge and skills of the hereditary occupation of a caste from one generation to another which ensured high productivity.
• Teaches values and norms: Caste plays a crucial role in the process of socialization by teaching individuals the culture and traditions, values and norms of their society.
• Trade unionism: Caste acted as a trade union and protected its members from exploitation.

Dysfunctions of Caste System

• Restricts economic and intellectual advancement: It keeps economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population only. Example: We can’t able to get important personalities like Ambedkar if the caste system was strictly followed.
• The exploitation of Women and untouchables: It has inflicted hardships through practices like denial of the entry into temple, child marriage, prohibition of widow-remarriage, seclusion of women, etc.
• Undemocratic rule: There are parties like SP which supports only Yadavas and BSP which supports only SC, ST and OBC.
• Disintegrating factor: Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in India. From reservation in jobs and education to inter-caste marriages. Example: Demand for Jat Reservation.
• Opposes Modernization: The caste System by compelling an individual to act strictly in accordance with the caste norms stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change.

Dalit Movement in India

• Republican Party of India, 1957: It replaced the All India Scheduled Castes Federation formed to fight against the atrocities committed against Dalits & to spread the message of Lord Buddha.
• Dalit Panther Movement, 1972: Dalit youths fought for their civil rights & raised their voice against the unjust caste system. The movement contributed immensely towards literature. It made popular the term “Dalit”, in preference to terms such as “Harijans” & “Untouchables”.
• Bahujan Samaj Party, 1984: It was founded by Kanshi Ram and stressed education for women and fought against the dowry evil by warning people including Dalits not to take dowry.
• Bhim Army: Founded by lawyer Chandrashekhar Azad for Dalit emancipation through education.

Jajmani System

• India has a remarkable tradition of inter-dependence which has kept it united for centuries. And, this is despite the fact that ours is a caste-ridden society where there are practices of societal stratification. Such an example is the Jajmani System or functional interdependence of various castes.
• Jajman or Yajman is the recipient of certain services. The Jajmani system is a socio-economic and ritual arrangement in which one caste secures the service of another caste. This system initially developed in the villages between the food-producing families and the families which supported them with other goods and services.
• The entire gamut of social order developed with Jajmani links with multiple types of payments and obligations. None of the castes was self-sufficient and it depended for many things on other castes. Thus, each caste worked as a functional group and was linked with other castes via the mechanisms of the Jajmani system.
• Though the Jajmani system represented the interlinking of the Hindu caste yet, in practice this system crossed the boundary of religion and provided linkages between different religions also. For example, a Hindu’s dependence on a Muslim weaver or washerman or a Muslim’s dependence on a Hindu trader/tailor / Goldsmith etc. is a manifestation of that mechanism only, though not called so.
• However, various development like westernization, Globalisation, dilution of the caste system, expansion of education and in turn employment have meta-morphed the Jajmani system transcending the traditional base of interdependence.

Characteristics of the caste system in India

• Segmental division of society — It means that social stratification is largely based on caste. Membership to a caste group is acquired by birth, based on which people are ranked relative to other caste groups.
• Hierarchy — It indicates that various castes are categorized according to their purity and impurity of occupations. Just like a ladder, castes are ranked from higher to lower positions. Pure caste is ranked at the top, and impure is ranked at the bottom.
• Endogamy — Members of a particular caste have to marry within their caste only. Inter-caste marriages are prohibited. However, in urban areas, the phenomenon of inter-caste marriage is increasing.
• Untouchability — It is the practice of ostracizing a group by segregating them from the mainstream by social custom. Untouchability was a corollary of the caste system, wherein the untouchables (those belonging to the lowest caste groups) were deemed impure and polluted.
• Civil and religious disabilities — These comprise restrictions based on contact, dress, speech, rituals etc. and are placed on every caste group. It was done in order to maintain the purity of specific caste groups. For example, lower-caste groups had no access to wells, they were restricted from entering temples etc.
• Manual scavenging — Manual scavenging eventually became a caste-based occupation, which involves the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines. It has been officially abolished by the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act 2013.
• Caste-based violence in India — The increasing trend of caste-based violence is related to instances of inter-caste marriage and assertion of basic rights by Dalits including land rights, freedom of expression, access to justice, access to education etc
• The policy of caste-based reservation — The system of caste-based reservation in India comprises of a series of affirmative action measures, such as reserving access to seats in the various legislatures, to government jobs, and to enrollment in higher educational institutions. For E.g. Scheduled Caste groups are given 15% reservation in government services and educational institutions.

Changes in the Caste system

• Trends for inter-caste marriage — Due to economic and social necessities, inter-caste marriages on western lines are being performed at increased.
• The challenge to orthodoxy — Orthodox practices of the caste system such as child marriage, ban on widow re-marriage, ban on conversion, and insensitiveness of the superior class towards the low caste people are being challenged in the wake of urbanization.
• New food habits — Due to the frequent mixing of people at meetings, conferences, seminars, etc., food habits have changed. Moreover, people have adapted to new ones.
• Improvement in the position of lower caste — Due to steps initiated by the government, the position of lower castes has improved economically as well as socially.
• Changes in occupation — Leaving behind their traditional roles, Brahmins have become traders, whereas Vaishyas have joined teaching and so on.
• While the manifestation of the order has changed to a large extent in recent times, the system itself has not changed much.
• For instance — Even though untouchability and caste-based discrimination are barred under the Constitution of India, occupations like manual scavenging have the majority of workers from lower castes.
• Even the constitutional provisions for the reservation of seats and jobs for the people belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have failed to produce the desired integrative effect.
• Political mobilization based on caste has been increasing. For e.g., Lingayats demand to be considered a minority community.

Factors Affecting the Changes in the Caste System

• Sanskritisation
• Modernisation
• Westernisation
• Industrialisation and urbanisation
• Democratic decentralisation
• Sanskritisation: Sanskritisation, as a process of change, is the mobility concerned with the positional change in the caste system. By changing the customs and rituals such as by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, people belonging to the low castes are claiming a higher position in the caste hierarchy.
• Westernization: Due to changes in the spheres of education, food habits, dressing sense, style of eating, manners, etc., westernization has brought occupational changes cutting across the caste barriers.
• Modernization: It is a process that primarily relies on a scientific outlook, rational attitudes, high social mobility, mass mobilization, and specialization in work. It has made the caste system more flexible. For example, in urban areas, castes are gradually becoming classes. The emergence of the middle class with a rational outlook and goal orientation is a testimony to this fact.
• Industrialisation and urbanization à With the growth of industrial towns and cities, migration has spiralled up. Unlike the source regions, destination areas witness less adherence to caste rules.
• Democratic decentralization: The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has allowed the lower castes.
• Caste and politics: They both are closely linked to each other. In fact, the link has led to empowerment among the lower castes since they vent their feelings through elections and the power lobby. Dalit politics is one such example, where Dalits are trying to assert their identities and have become successful in capturing power in various states.
• Legislative measures: A variety of social legislations have been introduced in the post-independence era, which aims to safeguard the interests of the downtrodden, eradicate untouchability, and facilitate the social and economic development of the depressed castes. For instance, the Untouchability (Offenses) Act, of 1955, provided for punishment against the practice of untouchability.

Marriage

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Marriage is a social, religious or legal contract between one/more males & one/more females for the purpose of pro-creation & psychophysical needs.

Changes in Marriage System

• Purpose of marriage: In traditional societies, the primary objective of marriage is ‘dharma’ or duty; especially among Hindus. But today, the modem objective of marriage is more related to ‘life-long companionship’ between husband and wife.
• Form of marriage: Traditional forms of marriage like polygamy, polygyny are legally prohibited in India. Nowadays, mostly monogamous marriages are practised.
• Age of marriage: According to legal standards, the marriageable age for boys and girls stands at 21 and 18, respectively. The average age of marriage has gone up, and prepuberty marriages have given place to post-puberty marriages.
• Divorce and desertion rates: Relaxed legislative provisions for divorce have virtually affected the stability of marriage, particularly in urban areas. It is mainly due to economic prosperity and internet connectivity. The Internet has exposed people to the different social trends prevalent across the world.
• Live-in relationships: They are on a steady growth rate in India, especially among the youth in metropolitan cities. The institution also had legal recognition as a three-judge bench of SC in 2010 observed that a man and a woman living together without marriage cannot be construed as an offence and held that living together is a Right to Life and Liberty (Article 21).
• Preference for Neolocal: It’s where the couple settles in the husband’s home or community changes to neolocal where couples reside separately from both the husband’s natal household and the wife’s natal household.
• Same-Sex Marriage: They are not legally recognized in India nor are same-sex couples offered limited rights such as civil union or a domestic partnership. But the hearing on several petitions is going on.

Family

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• The family forms the basic unit of social organization.
• It is the most immediate group a child is exposed to.
• It is in the family a child learns language, behavioural patterns, and social norms in his childhood.
• In some way or the other, a family is a universal group. It exists in tribal, rural, and urban communities and among the followers of all religions and cultures.
• It provides the most enduring relationship in one form or another.

Characteristics of Family

• Family is a basic, definite, and enduring
• Family is formed by the companionship of the husband, and the wife who procreates children.
• The family may be limited to the husband, wife, or only the father and his children or only the mother and her children.
• Family is generally smaller in size compared to other social groups, organizations, and associations.
• Family can also be large in which persons belonging to several generations may live together.

Types of Family

On the basis of size and structure:

On the basis of Marriage:

On the basis of residence:

On the basis of Authority:

On the basis of Descent:

Functions of Family

Primary function

• Production and rearing of the child
• The instrument of culture transmission
• Provision of home
• Agent of socialization
• Status ascribing function
• Agency of social control

Secondary function

• Economic functions: With economic advancements, the family has become a more consuming unit than a producing one. Members are engaged in earning wages for ensuring the socio-economic well-being of the family.
• Educational functions: Family provides the basis for the child’s formal learning. In spite of great changes, the family still gives the child his basic training in the social attitudes and habits important to adult participation in social life.
• Religious functions: The family is a centre for the religious training of the children. The children learn from their parent’s various religious virtues.
• Recreational functions: Family provides opportunities for parents and children for engaging in various recreational activities such as playing indoor games, dancing, singing, reading etc.

Some recent changes in Family

Factors Promoting Nuclearisation of Family:

• Technological Revolution: Access to conveniences like electricity, and piped water has increased the common man’s standard of living which ultimately affected its productive function, abandonment of self-sufficiency in family economy, occupational and population mobility, weakening of kinship ties and so forth.
• Population Revolution: Shift from agricultural to manufacturing and service, migration from rural to urban areas, decrease in birth and death rates, increase in average expectation of life and availability of elderly persons in family etc.
• Democratic Revolution: Ideals of democracy at the family level include the demand for rights by women, the emancipation of children from patriarch’s authority, willingness to approach decision-making through a democratic process etc.
• Secular Revolution: Shift away from religious values to rational values. Change in wife’s attitude towards husband, demand for divorce on maladjustment, children’s reluctance to support parents in old age etc.

Factors Reinforcing the Joint Family:

• The feminisation of work: Today many couples working in service sectors like banking and insurance find very little time for child care. In such cases old parents take care of children
• Increasing Cost of Living in Urban Areas: With the problem of finding accommodation and limited space available for living in cities, similarly, the rising cost of living in urban areas especially in slums forces people to share residence among other family members.
• Resilience in Joint Family Ideology: Families which have migrated to cities still retain their bonds to joint family in the village and town. This is evident from the physical presence of relatives at a time of events like birth, marriage, death, or illness.
  Sometimes members of families living in cities go to the village for these events. The joint family ethic is very much evident in the performance of certain role obligations.
  A family in the city has the duty to give shelter to all immigrants from the rural family, (Young men in pursuit of education or work, or relatives seeking medical treatment).
• Industrialization: Industrialization serves to strengthen the joint family because an economic base has been provided to support it because more hands are needed in a renewed family enterprise or because kin can help one another in the striving for upward mobility. Similarly, joint families continue to be the norm among industrial entrepreneurs.

Kinship

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• The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in groups is called kinship. Further, the social relationships deriving from blood ties (real and supposed) and marriage are collectively referred to as kinship.
• The kinship system represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies plays a significant role in the socialization of individuals and the maintenance of group solidarity.
• It is supremely important in primitive societies and extends its influence on almost all their activities- social, economic, political, religious, etc.

Tribal Society

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Tribes have been classified as a group of people with a little background who were entitled to have a common name, language and territory, tied by strong kinship bonds, practising endogamy, distinct customs, rituals and beliefs, simple social ranks, and political organisation, common ownership of resources and technology.

Statistics: There are about 705 STs in the country and constitute 6% of the total population.

Changes bought by changing economic scenario in tribal regions:

• Forest resources have declined, and forests have been increasingly brought under reservation. They are no longer the comfort zones of the tribal people except in certain areas of North-East India.
• Tribal people have been compelled to give away a lot of land to more experienced agriculturists, to industries, and for big projects like hydroelectric reservoirs.
• Big industries have been established in their areas. So, the bane is they have been displaced by such industries, and the boon is they have been given employment as wage labourers.
• The impact of the market economy has resulted in the tribal’s production for the market rather than for meeting their own needs.

Features of Tribe in India

• Definite Common Topography: They live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that region.
• Dependence on land: In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribals will lose other characteristics of tribal life.
• Sense of unity: Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribe’s sense of unity during times of peace and war.
  Example: Unity among tribal can be seen in tribal revolts against Britishers.
• Endogamous group: Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded.
• Common dialect: Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect which further strengthens their sense of unity.
• Ties of blood-relationship: Blood relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating a sense of unity among the tribals.
• Protection awareness: Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this, a single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority.
• Distinct political organization: The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe.
• Common culture: Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common religion, and common political organisation producing a life of homogeneity among the tribals.
• Egalitarian values: There are no institutionalized inequalities like the caste system or sex-based inequalities. Thus, men and women enjoyed equal status and freedom.

Issues faced by the tribes in India

• Loss of control over natural resources (Example- 21 million displaced in Odisha, Jharkhand and Chattisgarh due to the development of mines and industrial development. Tribals alone account for about 40% of the displaced people.
• Loss of ownership rights over land
• Lack of Education (In the Census 2011, Tribals were only 59% literate whereas the overall literacy rate was 74.04%)
• Displacement from their motherland
• No rehabilitation for the displaced tribals.
• Problems of health and nutrition.
• Erosion of Identity

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

• “Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, the caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment. (2018) — 10 Marks
• In the contest of the diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint. (2017) — 10 Marks
• What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence, addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)? (2017) — 10 Marks
• The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very early times, but it is also playing an important part in the present. Elaborate. (2017) (15 marks)
• To what extent globalization has influenced the course of cultural diversity in India? (2016) — 12.5 Marks
• Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in building a national identity (2015) — 12.5 Marks
• What makes Indian society unique in sustaining its culture? Discuss. (2019) (10 Marks)
• What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space? (2019) (10 Marks)
• Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss. (2019) (15 marks)