Hidden Footprints and New Beginnings: An evaluation of the hidden effects of travel on Latin America’s local and indigenous communities.
Introduction
In 1950, seven million people, approximately the current population of Arizona, visited the Americas. However, by the time 1990 rolled around, the equivalent of the populations of California, Texas, and Illinois combined, or 80 million people, were visiting the Americas each year (McLaren, 2003). The number of tourists has continued to skyrocket with 219 million people visiting the Americas in 2019 (United Nations World Travel Organization), including approximately 97 million in Latin America alone (UNWTO & Organización Mundial del Turismo, 2018 ).
Travel has allowed people from all over the world to learn and experience new and rich cultures, meet new people, and experience awe at Latin America’s natural beauty rather than through reading a book or browsing the internet. Unfortunately, such a robust tourist industry can have negative economic, environmental, and sociocultural impacts. Travelers and experts alike have proposed ideas to reduce the negative implications of tourism on local communities. One solution, known as “sustainable tourism,” urges travelers to take personal responsibility for the effects of their visit to host nations. In recent years, this type of travel has become more popular among tourists in Latin America.
As promising as sustainable tourism sounds, it is not without its drawbacks. Practitioners of sustainable tourism often seek to protect the environment they visit by purchasing tours and forays into the wild from companies that do not share their value of sustainability. Local and indigenous communities are often left out of decision-making about tourism and often do not benefit from tourist revenue. Even the most conscientious traveler may not realize that their money will not benefit those they seek to empower. Thankfully, sustainable travel, done right, can effectively reduce many of the economic, socio-cultural, environmental problems created by tourism. As tourism continues to rise in the Americas, it is imperative that tourists reduce their negative impacts on local communities’ environment, culture, and economy.
Economic Impacts of Tourism
With travel on the rise, the amount of revenue generated from tourism has risen. According to the UNWTO’s Organización Mundial de Turismo, in 2017 Latin America earned $73.46 billion in revenue yearly from international travelers. Unfortunately, only a small fraction of tourist revenue stays in local communities, the rest often profiting foreign corporations. For example, in Fiji, only 25% of their tourist industry’s profit goes to local people or firms. The highest paying jobs in the tourist industry often go to foreigners rather than those who live in the area (Hundt, 1997).
Furthermore, some local economies have become dependent on tourist income and have to live with its negative ramifications. According to the IADB, 85 percent of Aruba’s economy, for example, is dependent on tourism. It is also surprising that some of the nations with the most profitable tourist industries also have the highest poverty rates.
Destinations like the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador are entirely reliant on tourism. More than two-thirds of the income of the islands’ twenty thousand residents are dependent on the industry. McLaren (2003) suggests the problems in the Galapagos are deeper still: “Compared to the mainland, normal prices on the Galapagos Islands are at least twofold in comparison, and often much higher still. Employees in tourism who earn minimum wage, and in some cases less, are impoverishing at an accelerated rate. This situation encourages a sufficiently large group of individuals to become involved in illegal activities to try and earn a living and support their family” (p. 122). The tourism industry, which the Galapagos is now dependent upon, is causing economic hardship along with a rise in crime while it should be doing the opposite.
Socio-Cultural Effects of Tourism
Travel is one of humankind’s greatest and most important tools for learning. When people travel they have the opportunity to go to museums, see important historical landmarks, meet new friends, and learn about a wide variety of cultures and traditions. Unfortunately, locals often feel they must commodify their culture to suit the desires of tourists. In his article “Tourism and its Discontents in the Global South,” Dr. Joseph Cheer (2020) expertly describes how tourists who fetishize other cultures reinforce stereotypes: “Some indigenous peoples have sought to leverage their cultural and natural inheritances for tourism development, trying to capitalize on the marketability of indigeneity as a draw for global travelers” (p. 29). Such “superficial transactions” (Cheer 2020) will not provide travelers with authentic experiences and certainly do not benefit locals. As a result, the culture that tourists encounter is often not the real deal. Locals have often found that in order to make a profit and attract tourists they must change their own culture to reflect false perceptions and stereotypes held by foreigners.
The Galapagos Islands in Ecuador, one of the most well known ecological destinations in the world, is a prime example of how tourism can negatively affect the socio-cultural aspects of the host community. Epler (2007) explains that early on the relatively manageable levels of tourism benefited the islands. The initial longtime residents originally owned many of the ships that tourists stayed on when visiting the islands. The residents believed that this was a path to future financial security for themselves and their families. However, as accessibility to the islands has caused the population to increase, the number of tourists has grown as well. Consequently, the effects of tourism have become more complicated. This, combined with the dramatic climb in tourism levels, has led to unfortunate and unthinkable consequences, including accelerating drug abuse rates among local youth, loss of cultural identity, and poor stewardship of the local environment (McLaren, 2003).
Environmental Impacts of Tourism
Tourists affect every aspect of their host countries including the natural environment. While the economic and cultural impacts might be more obvious, it is impossible to ignore the damage to the environment resulting from tourism. According to Martha Honey (1999), the construction of one of the first hotels in the Papagayo beach region of Costa Rica marred the local ecosystem through the removal of trees, dredging of Mangrove habitats, and threatening of local species. Specifically, she details the damage done to the ecosystem resulting from the developer illegally building below high tide marks and violating local ordinances regarding road use and construction (Honey, 1999). In the end, the hotel had to limit building height to three stories and was required to add more green space, replacing but not restoring the habitat they had destroyed in the construction. (Honey, 1999).
Tourists in addition to developers also have a direct impact on the environment. Environmentally sensitive areas face erosion from tourist traffic. In addition, tourists interfere or damage bird nests, as well as litter in forests and waterways. McLaren (2003) perfectly sums up these adverse effects of tourism on local ecosystems by explaining how the majority of tourist destinations cause high levels of pollution, consume intense amounts of energy, and are often built very close together rather than being thoughtfully spaced apart. She then continues in further detail about the heavy stress tourist sites put on the local environment as they often increase the use of chemicals and petroleum products, alter the natural landscapes, and create living patterns that disturb the ecological world.
Inhibitors of Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable tourism is not a perfect solution despite local and global efforts. While efforts like ecotourism certifications implement the values of sustainable tourism, such efforts often have the potential to harm local communities further because they often do not have the funds or infrastructure to qualify for certification (McLaren, 2003). At times tourism agencies, the private sector, and tourism infrastructure requirements have created hardship for local communities. For example, Saufi et al. (2013) determined through discussions with local people in Lombok, Indonesia that villages were often not included by tourism board officials in discussions regarding new tourist developments, despite the fact that they experienced the fewest benefits from tourism. Said one farmer in Lombok, “Well, we do not know what to sell, or where to work. So far, we are never informed about tourism. We just know tourists when they come here, that is all” (p. 810). This farmer is expressing the frustration of other locals in Lombok who do not know how or are not allowed to benefit from tourist money coming into their island.
A further barrier is the divide between the local tourist economy and international investors. The tourist industry can be broken down into types of tourism or ‘sectors’. According to Professor David Gladstone (2005), there are two sectors of international tourism: the formal and the informal. Gladstone discusses the differences between the two sectors of international tourism by explaining that although there is no widely agreed-upon definition, “In short, the formal accommodation and transportation sector approximates the Western prototype while land-based travel, inexpensive eating places, and low-cost accommodations characterize the informal sector” (p. 40). Essentially this creates a situation in which the foreign companies generate much more profit and name recognition than the local hotels and restaurants.
Analysis
Sustainable tourism is commonly defined as the desire to offer tourism in a way that respects the needs of both the local community as well as the needs of travelers (Cheer, 2020). Sustainable travel is an “aspiration” because developing such travel is time-consuming, requires a significant upfront investment, and sometimes produces low economic returns. Simply put, travelers often desire higher-end food and accommodations than locals are equipped to provide. To respect the hospitality of host communities means to compensate locals fairly, preserve their culture, avoid overwhelming a place or ecosystem with travelers, and accept non-“luxury” accommodations. With planning, patience, and investments, sustainable tourism can work. In fact, a number of nations, localities, and sites worldwide are committed to its principles: cultural sharing and preservation, ecological protection, and the ability to offset the resulting costs of tourism.
When locals have the opportunity to preserve their culture while supporting their local economy and providing reasonable accommodations to tourists, the tourists also receive the opportunity to experience that culture and place authentically, and both parties benefit. For example, cultural sites like Machu Picchu are open to tourists but are controlled and operated by the government and local companies who must abide by rules restricting the number of visitors per day to reduce the negative impact on locals in nearby Cusco and the environment in rural Peru (Mastny, 2001). Furthermore, many other nations now charge tourists a fee to access cultural or historical sites. The money is then used to maintain these treasures, benefiting both locals and travelers. In Costa Rica, tourist fees provide 25% of the National Park Service annual budget for protection and maintenance. In the Caribbean, the Bonaire Marine Park raised enough from fees to cover all annual operation and maintenance of the park (Mastny, 2001). This proves that many nations are waking up to the costs associated with tourism and responding by ensuring their sites are preserved for future tourists.
Nations like Cuba have decentralized the tourist industry. Instead of large multinational corporations and national governments controlling large parts of the industry, villages and locals get a piece of the pie. One way Cuban villagers earn a living through the tourism industry is by running “casa particulares.” As the island’s version of “Air BNBs”, casa particulares are run out of locals’ homes. The money earned goes directly into the community. Dr. Thornburg (2017) suggests that in many villages such as Viñales, one will find streets lined with casa particulares, thus showing how important these small businesses are to local economies. Furthermore, he notes that casa particulares owners do not partake in transactions using the Cuban peso. They actually use a currency called a CUC, which is equivalent to around 25 Cuban Pesos (Thornburg, 2017). As a result, owners earn more money than the average worker in Cuba. After speaking with hosts of casa particulares, Thornburg (2017) discovered just how much they benefit. Specifically, owning a casa particulare gives owners a sense of pride, accomplishment, and power over their lives. Furthermore, it makes them feel compelled to offer their friends, family, and neighbors the opportunity to make advancements in economic situations and adds to the overall social cohesion of their village.
Local self-sufficiency is a core value of sustainable tourism. When villages or people are self-sufficient, they do not have to rely on the government or bank to fund their endeavors. They do not have to worry about paying back debt or getting official approval for projects. Furthermore, sustainable tourism gives cities more power when making deals with developers. They would no longer have to rely on the income generated by corporations because local firms earn enough profit to compete as a group with larger firms. Self-sufficiency even has the benefit of giving a sense of pride and empowerment to locals, local businesses, and entire villages or cities.
For example, in Costa Rica, which is famous for its rainforests, beautiful beaches, and ecotourism opportunities, locals run a wide variety of ventures. In Perez Zeledon, San Jose, Costa Rica, the local lodges, tourist organizations, and restaurants are increasingly locally owned and operated. According to Mason and Howitt (2018), tourists first began arriving in the area in 1970, but at that point, there was not any true tourism infrastructure. However, they note that many cities were able to construct their own locally. In fact, Howitt and Mason explain that by 2011, San Gerardo de Riveras, a small village in Perez Zeledon and the gateway to Mt. Chippiro, had evolved their tourist infrastructure from a couple of informal guest homes to nine locally-owned dedicated places of rest. While the numbers may seem small, it is significant because the villages have been able to construct their own tourism infrastructure that effectively accommodates the annual tourist traffic. In fact, locals operate everything from trout farms to yoga retreats to non-profit cafes (Howitt & Mason, 2018). Even more incredible, locals have been able to diversify their tourist-reliant incomes. This shows that travelers have the ability to travel sustainably not just by choosing where they stay but also by carefully planning out their itinerary to include activities and dining destinations owned by locals. Instead of using a large company to go on horseback riding adventures or walking tours, for example, tourists can choose instead to use local lodges and adventure companies that provide authentic experiences while investing money back into the local economy.
However, as we have seen, not all sustainable tourism practices are equal. While sustainable tourism has helped many communities, it has also brought hardship to places such as Monteverde, Costa Rica. According to Dr. Martha Honey (1999), an eco-tourism boom in Monteverde caused an overwhelming number of immigrants to arrive in the area between 1984 and 1992. Unfortunately, due to the remote location of parts of Monteverde, several communities have struggled to keep up with tourist infrastructure. When the tourism boom started, many local villages did not have the necessary housing and restaurants to have the ability to handle such large numbers of visitors. Like the Galapagos, Montevderde experienced a skyrocketing cost of living, housing shortages, declining healthcare quality, and increasing pressures on electrical and water systems. In fact, Honey states that until 1993 there was almost no garbage collection or recycling. Instead, families buried or tossed their waste in local rivers, leading to water pollution and disease. Fortunately, there are several ways to combat the adverse effects of ecotourism and bring prosperity to local communities.
One way is to provide funding and educational opportunities for both locals and tourists alike. According to Saufi et al. (2013), many of the people living in tourism areas felt like they lacked the proper knowledge and education to have the skills to create successful enterprises. To change this, locals must receive proper funding and education. This education can be extended to tourists. Buzinde et al. (2020) mention how the Kichwa indigenous community of the Amazon has created a field school through which all the employees are locals, and tourists learn about local culture and language.
Although international investment can have a negative impact, in recent years a new type of foreign investment, called ”impact investment,” has the ability to provide a positive impact. “Impact investment” means a foreign company invests with the goal of benefiting a local community while still generating profit (thegiin.com, n.d.). “Impact investing” is an opportunity for very wealthy firms to make money while benefiting all parties. Currently, more than $228 billion is invested according to the Global Impact Investors Network. Impact investors, including famous investors like Al Gore (Dallmann, 2018), collectively hope to invest up to a trillion dollars in the near future.
When sustainable tourism is done correctly so much can happen. Locals will be self-sufficient and have successful enterprises. Tourists will have meaningful educational experiences, feel a strong connection with the local environment, and will leave their destination better than when they arrived. Finally, foreign enterprises will make a profit while not harming those who welcomed them in.
Conclusion
Sustainable tourism is a new way to think about the impacts of one’s travel. Far removed from the travel of the 1970s and 1980s, sustainable travel means visiting another place or nation while leaving a positive impact, not merely a neutral one, and certainly not a negative one. It means supporting local people and economies. It means both experiencing and appreciating the value of local cultures and making a connection between cultures, an exchange that goes both ways. Finally, it means keeping natural wonders and beauty intact not only for future travelers but most importantly for the people who live near eco-sites.
Despite the negative socio-cultural and economic implications of tourism on local and indigenous communities in Latin America, we as tourists have the ability to leave a positive footprint and empower communities through being meaningful in where we stay, which firms we schedule activities through, where we eat, and where we choose to tread. The examples mentioned above — Cuba, Perez Zeledon, and the Galapagos — demonstrate the potential of sustainable travel. Now that sustainable tourism options exist in various markets, travelers have more choice in making their travel support local communities and preserve the local environment. Travelers, therefore, have a responsibility to patronize businesses that practice sustainable tourism. This will be even more important once travel starts to pick up again in a post-Covid world.
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