Ancient Egyptian Skull May Have Been Among First Attempts to Treat Cancer
Researchers have analyzed two ancient Egyptian individuals who suffered from cancer; one of them may have been treated for it.
Egypt, the old kingdom (2,686–2,345 BCE). Senbi could feel the pain in his jaw worsening. He touched his hand to the top of his head, the angry pulsating of the wound had gotten worse. Inside his mouth the swelling had also not abated. He hadn’t been able to eat properly this morning; he’d given his bread to the dog to finish; chewing was too painful.
The healers had given up; no poultice or concoction they had given him had worked, and the ancient arts of medicine and magic had failed him…Five days ago, they tried to intervene surgically, but even the healers gave up. “You came too late, Senbi. Now it is up to the gods to help you…”
As he ascended the steps to the temple, his laboured breathing echoed in the morning stillness; he recalled his youth. As a young boy, he would run up and down these steps, full of energy and life, but his body had withered away as the disease ate him from the inside. He felt like a shadow of his former self.
He collapsed before the statue, and began to pray fervently. This was his 15th visit in just as many days, his hopes of divine intervention disappearing with every unanswered prayer.
He would stay all day again, as he had the day before. Watching as the setting sun bathed the temple in golden orange light. His wife came to fetch him; she had put him to bed and tried feeding him some warm mush, but he had not the energy nor the desire to eat it. Senbi closed his eyes and never opened them again.
This is how the last days of an ancient Egyptian may have looked. While reading this journal article and seeing the images of the skulls, I wondered not just about their scientific value but also who these two might have been.
But before I jump the gun, how about I tell you exactly what all this is about?
Ancient Egypt, Medicine and Cancer
Recently, Tondini and colleagues published the results of an extensive study conducted on two ancient Egyptian skulls. Using micro-CT scanning technology and microscopic analysis of the bones, they were able to reveal evidence of successful trauma therapy and, perhaps, one of the earliest attempted cancer treatments in the ancient world.
The ancient Egyptians were well versed in the practice of medicine; many preserved papyri and hieroglyphs describe diseases and traumas, and we have physical evidence showing their success in the form of dental fillings, healed fractures, trephination (drilling a hole in the skull) and prostheses (artificial body parts). However, even the ancient Egyptians were at their limits regarding cancer.
Despite what many believe, cancer is not a more modern phenomenon; many ancient civilizations, including ancient Egyptian palaeopathological (ancient medical studies) records, have ample examples and descriptions of tumors, swellings, and ‘eating’ lesions with various prescribed treatments. However, physical evidence that these descriptions were of cancer and that any of the recorded treatments of cancer were implemented this far back in time has been more elusive.
One of these written records, the Edwin Smith Papyrus (3000–2500 BCE), is the earliest example of what looks to be a description of a tumor. A part of the papyrus specifically described how they looked and felt and what the patient’s symptoms were, for example, Case 39. These observations decided on the course of treatment; if the cancer was cold (and the patient had no fever), no treatment method was prescribed, as it was likely known to the ancient Egyptians that such a tumor was beyond treatment. However, any other tumor could have been treated, for example, by cauterization (burning off) of the cancer. After this, the wound would be bound, with meat on the first day probably to stop bleeding, and then with honey, grease, and lint poultices daily.
The Two Skulls
The two ancient Egyptian skulls are held at the Duckworth Laboratory at the University of Cambridge. Neither skull is associated with any post-cranial bones (meaning they have no leg, rib, arm, or other type of bone associated with them). Very little is known about the origins of skulls. The younger skull, E270, dates to 664 and 343 BCE (26–30th Dynasties, Late Period) and was recovered in Giza. The second skull, 236 (whom I named Senbi in the above story), is much older, dating back to 2686–2345 BCE (3–5th Dynasty, Old Kingdom). However, where he was found is unknown.
Before conducting microscopic or micro-CT scanning analyses, the skulls were sexed (determine their sex by analyzing key bone structures), and age determination (by examining the teeth) was undertaken. It was determined that skull E270 belonged to a 50+-year-old woman, while skull 236 belonged to a male between the ages of 30–35.
The woman had three main lesions (‘wounds’). The first and most obvious was a large hole in the skull. This hole was not the result of trephination or an injury; in fact, it was the result of a cancerous lesion eating away at the bone, leaving behind a hole almost the size of a fist. The terrible malignant growth had spread, and evidence of cancer slowly spreading across the rest of the skull became evident through the CT scan. Sadly, no evidence that this cancerous growth was treated could be seen on the bone surface. However, the medical prowess of the Egyptians can be seen in two old wounds.
The first, found on the left side of her skull, seems to have been the result of a sharp weapon. The blow to her head was so severe that it not only fractured her skull but led to a dent in her head where the bone had been crushed and pushed inwards. The angle of the wound indicates the wound was the result of a face-to-face event, with the perpetrator likely being right-handed. Remarkably, this terrible injury shows signs of healing.
The second wound, on the side of the woman’s head, was caused by blunt-force trauma (potentially from being struck by a blunt object) that left a deep indent in the woman’s skull. Surprisingly, these, too, showed signs of healing, meaning she managed to survive two (seemingly separate) traumatic events.
Skull 236, belonging to a 30–35 year old man, lived around 2686–2345 BCE, just after the Edwin Smith Papyrus was written (3000–2500 BCE). Skull 236 showed no signs of interpersonal violence. However, he, too, suffered from cancer. The tumour originated in the man’s palate (roof of the mouth) and subsequently spread to parts of the rest of the skull. These additional small lesions (over 30) were found on the mandible and top of the skull and are associated with perimortem cut marks. Perimortem means these cutmarks were made just before or just after death, when the bones were still fresh but did not have the chance to heal. The association of these marks with the cancerous lesions and knowing that Egyptian mummification processes did not involve cutting around the top half of one’s skull, the marks are likely the result of intentional cutting at cancerous growths.
It is likely that either during the individual’s life, attempts were made to treat the growths, seemingly by cutting them out, or his body was examined after death to try to understand what these growths were and how to treat them in the future.
Without more information, the exact cause of death for these two individuals cannot be determined; however, given the advanced stages of cancer both were suffering from, it is not far-fetched to suggest their deaths could have been linked to their disease.
The study provides clear evidence that cancer existed in many forms in the ancient Egyptian world and shows the first evidence of people trying to treat the disease. The ancient Egyptians were skilled medicine practitioners and could heal even severe trauma, as evidenced by Skull E270; however, even they had their limits. And yet, the cut marks indicate they still tried, however futile the attempt, to help those afflicted by cancer.
I started this post with the story of Senbi because although these skulls are a treasure trove of scientific knowledge, we know barely anything about them. Even their bones have been lost, their place of birth is unknown, and their names are mysteries of the past.
The story of Senbi humanized them.
What do you think, was this an attempt to treat cancer in life or shortly after death? Let me know your thoughts, and if you’d like to support me further, why not Buy Me A Coffee?
References
- Anon (n.d.). User-submitted name Senbi — Behind the Name. [online] Available at: https://www.behindthename.com/name/senbi/submitted [Accessed 13 Jun. 2024].
- Satagopan, J. (2023) Cancer as ancient Egyptians knew and understood it, Cancer History Project. [online] Available at: https://cancerhistoryproject.com/article/cancer-as-ancient-egyptians-knew-and-understood-it/ (Accessed: 15 June 2024).
- Tondini, T., Isidro, A. and Camarós, E., 2024. Case report: Boundaries of oncological and traumatological medical care in ancient Egypt: new palaeopathological insights from two human skulls. Frontiers in Medicine, 11, p.1371645.
- Wells, C. (1963) ‘Ancient Egyptian Pathology’, The Journal of Laryngology & Otology, 77(3), pp. 261–265. doi:10.1017/S0022215100060606.
