Enigmatic Pre-Mongol Tomb of an Elite Woman Found in an Abandoned Fortress
A burial dated before the Mongol empire's rise provides some insights into a period of conflict and transition
I am fascinated by burials and the funerary rites that accompany them. My favourite course elective during my second year at university was ‘Archaeology of the Dead.’ During this course, we explored the funerary practices of different cultures across the world, some still practised today and others, ancient history, including ritual cannibalism performed by select tribes in the Amazon jungle, but perhaps that’s a topic for another time.
This morbid curiosity initially drew me to an article published by Prof. Chunag and colleagues about an elite burial (1158–1214CE) dating to the pre-Mongolian period.
The period between the Kitan Empire’s collapse (ca. 1125 CE) and the rise of the Mongol Empire and the famous Chinggis Khan (1206 CE) on the Mongolian plateau is rather enigmatic, both historically and archaeologically. Although we have some historical records and accounts about this period, many were written decades or centuries after the events.
This means that only a few primary sources can help us better understand this historical period. Archaeology, however, is one means by which primary clues about this period can be uncovered, revealing new insights into the polities, people, and circumstances that occurred after the Kitan collapse and before the rise of the Mongol empire.
Historical Background
The Kitan Empire (916–1125CE) expanded into much of eastern and central Mongolia. It was characterised by intricate frontiers in its northern and western regions, where it defended its borders against the people who are historically referred to as the Zubu (the meaning of this name is not exactly clear, but it is known to refer to the non-Kitan people who occupied the Mongolian plateau).
Post-frontier conditions escalated after the Kitan Empire’s collapse, marked by competition and consolidation. Its eastern lands, including parts of eastern Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern China, fell under the control of the Jurchen state of Jin (1115–1234CE). Concurrently, the Kitan’s power shifted west, eventually ruling as Qara Kitai (Western Liao).
Meanwhile, Mongolia's eastern steppe lands were controlled by various polities, including the Mongol, Naiman, Tatar, Merkit, and Kereit. From this intricate state of conflict and allegiance, Chinggis Khan and the Mongols would eventually form the great Mongol state by 1206CE.
But exactly what happened between the rise and fall of these empires is poorly understood. Few historical documents provide insights into the political and social circumstances at the time, and archaeologically, few remains related to this transitional period.
The archaeological investigations of Prof. Chunag and colleagues are among the first.
“Mongolia is a large country, and relatively speaking, the amount of archaeology done is not that much. The area where the grave was found is relatively unknown archaeologically, and our project is among the first to target it.” — Prof. Shelach-Lavi (part of the research team involved in the Joint Mongolian-Israeli-American Archaeological Project)
Survey, Excavation and the Discovery of a Grave
As part of the joint Mongolian-Israeli-American Archaeological Project, surveys were conducted along a series of long walls and structures found in parts of Russia, Northern China, and Mongolia. The structures, which totaled more than 4000 km in length, were constructed between the 11th and 13th centuries CE and thus fall squarely within the period between the fall of the Kitan Empire and the rise of the Mongol Empire.
Despite their scale and the considerable resources that must have been used to create and maintain these structures, their function, time of construction, and who built them are unknown.
One part of this structure, the northernmost wall, is not mentioned in any historical records and has not been the subject of any previous comprehensive archaeological or historical study.
The wall and accompanying ditch span 737km and are associated with 42 cluster structures (mostly circular or rectangular enclosures) at 20–30km intervals. A survey in 2018 near cluster 27, also known as Khar Nuur Fortress, was conducted. This initial survey revealed a large circular structure ca. 146m in diameter (ca. 479 feet), a rectangular structure around 109x113m (358x371 feet), and a smaller rectangular structure around 34x34m (ca. 112x112 feet). The remains of bronze artefacts, wooden objects, and other organic materials were scattered around them.
Based on this initial survey, an excavation was conducted in 2021. Unexpectedly, an elite grave was uncovered during this excavation.
The Burial and the Artefacts
“The grave we found was not marked above the surface (we found it by chance)” — Prof. Shelach-Lavi
The burial found within the wall of the Khar Nuur fortress was comprised of a wooden coffin, likely larch or pine; it was small, only around 182x53cm in size (5.97x1.74 feet), and contained the body of a 40–60-year-old woman. She lay on her back and was covered in a thin layer of bark. The artefacts with which she was buried comprised golden earrings, coral and glass beads, golden ornamental plaques, a gold bracelet, a bronze vessel, and a silver cup (among other things).
She wore a yellow silk robe and headgear reminiscent of a traditional medieval woman’s hat/headdress called a bogtag malgai, made of silk and birch bark. The textiles likely originated in China, as indicated by the material and method of production.
The fragments of a silver cup and bronze vessel were decorated with thin-line incised images and geometric figures, not comparable to any other decorative motifs found on other medieval objects in Mongolia.
Why these objects were interred is unknown; perhaps they were interred simply for their material worth, or perhaps they had a deeper meaning. Sadly, there is no clear answer,
“We really do not know much on specific ideas. We know that the belief in the Sky (Tengri) already existed in Mongolia and that Shamanism was also practiced, but we cannot connect those broad ideas to the specific artifacts and practices seen in the grave.” — Prof. Shelach-Lavi
The remains of bronze-framed wooden objects and leather were hypothesised to belong to a quiver or a bow and arrow case. Such objects have been found in other medieval burial assemblages, although usually associated with male interments.
The wood, which was from pine, larch, birch, and willow/poplar, is commonly found in the more forested areas of the Mongolian steppe. However, mulberry, also identified within the assemblage, is not recorded as a native woody plant in the area; even during the medieval period, it would have been unlikely to have grown there. The area, in general, was not very forested, suggesting all the woods likely had non-local origins, having been sources around 150km to 300 km away.
Furthermore, the woman had been buried between 1158 and 1214 CE. The mild osteoarthritic signs on her joints and the condition of her vertebral column indicated she had been active in life. Her teeth had mostly fallen out before her death, indicating she likely had difficulty chewing before she passed.
Finally, the area where she was buried was once part of the Kitan and Jurchen Jin frontier and later was inhabited by groups participating in the emergence of the Mongol empire. The area was likely ripe with conflict, embroiled in Tatar-Mongol struggles, influenced by residual Kitan loyalist influences, and struggles to stabilise the area by the Jurchen Jin.
Similarities and Differences to other Burials of the Time
Archaeologists have uncovered ~25 burials dating from the late Kitan to the early Mongol period in Mongolia. These burials all have particular things in common with other Mongolian burials of the time, including a burial pit, use of a wooden coffin, being orientated northwards, placing the deceased on their backs, and burial goods made up of a mix of personal decoration and containers. Where it differs is that it lacks a stone-built feature, lacks pottery (although the bronze vessel and silver cup may have filled this role), and is rather shallow.
Unlike the nearby Jurchen Jin burials, which indicated a person’s status by how elaborate the tomb architecture was, Mongolian burials generally indicated their status by the items they were interred with.
The Khar Nuur burial resembles graves found at the 12th to 13th-century Tavan Tolgoi cemetery, ca. 500km southwest. Stone ring structures, pit burials, and wooden coffins mark the burials. They contain many items, from silks to silver cups, gold, and non-local woods. The burials here represented individuals from the region's uppermost elite or royal lineages.
Based on this knowledge and what can be gleaned from the woman’s burial, she likely belonged to a prestigious lineage with political standing and networks that enabled her to accumulate wealth from the south, east, and perhaps west of her homeland.
Researchers, however, cannot say with certainty why she was buried in the walls of an abandoned fortress. Some hypotheses were made; perhaps the local community wished to inter their deceased here as they understood the fortress to be part of their history and Indigenous territory. By bringing her there, they affirmed their local identity and consolidated their social memory.
On the other hand, perhaps the fortress was perceived as a structure of great symbolic prestige, befitting a woman of her status. Or maybe she was interred here to declare possession of the territory, strengthening their presence and community ties to the region embroiled in political competition. The above hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, and it is possible that the factors in each hypothesis played a role in her interment in the walls of the Khar Nuur fortress.
Excavations and subsequent analyses undertaken by the Joint Mongolian-Israeli-American Archaeological Project have uncovered the burial of an elite medieval woman. She lived and died during a tumultuous period between the fall of the Kitan empire and the rise of the Mongol empire, with few historical records and few archaeological remains.
Her burial provides insights into cultural, social, and even economic practices of the time. It also provides insights into the existing exchange networks and artefacts valued and used by the local inhabitants.
Further research continues to uncover new details and insights, filling in the missing puzzle pieces one trowel of dirt at a time.
I wonder who this woman was and why she was buried in the walls of Khar Nuur, do you have any thought?
Let me know your thoughts, and if you’d like to support me further, why not Buy Me A Coffee?
References
- Chunag, A., Shelach-Lavi, G., Honeychurch, W., Byambatseren, B., Shamir, O., Munkhtur, U., Wolin, D., Wang, S. and Shamir, N., 2024. An elite grave of the pre-Mongol period, from Dornod Province, Mongolia. Archaeological Research in Asia, 39, p.100537.
