Tuareg rebellion: one of the longest ongoing conflict
Tuaregs have been fighting since 1916, a fight for their land, their right, and their freedom. This 107 year old struggle started against the French Colonial Empire, and even after fighting several fights against several powers their search for freedom hasn’t stopped yet.
*All the sources are given at end.*
Tuareg people and their culture
Kel Tamasheq, Kel Tagelmust or Tuareg people whatever you call them, they are the indigenous people of Sahara. The Tuareg people are a large Berber ethnic group. They also have their own language named Tuareg. They have an estimated population of 4 million, most follow Islam. And most of them are living in Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso.
They are descended from the indigenous Berber communities of Northern Africa. Though they have a rich and ancient history, linked to the Egyptian civilization. They have a unique social structure, language, and traditions. Their culture is largely matrilineal.
Clans have been a historical part of the Tuaregs. Most of the Tuarge people live in small clans of between 30 and 100 family members. They have many families that belong to different clans. The leader of each clan is the nephew (son of the sister) of the previous leader. The clans can join together to form a bigger group. The Tuareg had this way of living for a long time, even before they became Muslims.
Conflicts
The Tuareg people have been fighting for their independence since 1916, when they started the Kaocen revolt. The first Tuareg rebellion, also known as the Alfellaga, began shortly after Mali achieved independence from France in 1960. Since then, they have rebelled four times and fought one war. Currently, they are still fighting a war for their freedom and are also fighting against other militias such as Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara, Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa, and Jama’at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin.
Kaocen revolt
The Kaocen revolt was a Tuareg rebellion against French colonial rule of the area around the Aïr Mountains of northern Niger during 1916–17. The rebellion began in 1916 when Kaocen rallied his forces after the Sanusiya leadership in the Fezzan oasis town of Kufra declared war against the French colonialists in October 1914. Kaocen’s forces placed the garrison under siege on 17 December 1916, and Tuareg raiders, numbering over 1,000, led by Kaocen and his brother Mokhtar Kodogo, and armed with repeating rifles and one cannon seized from the Italians in Libya, defeated several French relief columns. They seized all the major towns of the Aïr, including Ingall, Assodé, and Aouderas, placing what is today northern Niger under rebel control for over three months.
Finally, on 3 March 1917, a large French force, which had been dispatched from Zinder, relieved the Agadez garrison and began to seize the rebel towns. Large-scale French reprisals were taken against the towns, especially against local marabouts even though many were not Tuareg and had not supported the rebellion. Summary public executions by the French in Agadez and Ingal alone totaled 130. Tuareg rebels also carried out many atrocities.
The revolt led by Kaocen was just one episode in a history of recurring conflict between some Tuareg confederations and the French. In 1911, a rising of Firhoun, Amenokal of Ouelimaden was crushed in Ménaka, only to reappear in northeast Mali after he escaped from French custody in 1916. Many Tuareg groups had continually fought the French (and the Italians after their 1911 invasion of Libya) since their arrival in the last decade of the 19th century. Others were driven to revolt by the severe drought of the years 1911–14, by French taxation and seizure of camels to aid other conquests, and by French abolition of the slave trade, leading many previously subservient settled communities of the area to themselves revolt against traditional rule and taxation by the nomadic Tuareg.
Niger gained its independence from France on August 3, 1960 and Mali on June 20, 1960. All of the colonizing countries were freed at similar times. But the Tuareg people found them in 3 separate countries where they had almost no voice.
Tuareg rebellion (1962–1964)
The Tuareg Rebellion of 1962–1964, sometimes called the First Tuareg Rebellion or the Alfellaga, was an insurgency by populations of what is now northern Mali that began shortly after the nation achieved independence from France in 1960. The Tuareg leader of the rise against the French was Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen (1880–1919). Kaocen was the Amenokal (chief) of the Ikazkazan Tuareg confederation and an adherent to the militantly anti-French Sanusiya Sufi religious order.
The rebellion began in 1962 when Tuareg raiders, numbering over 1,000, led by Kaocen and his brother Mokhtar Kodogo, and armed with repeating rifles and one cannon seized from the Italians in Libya, defeated several French relief columns. They seized all the major towns of the Aïr, including Ingall, Assodé, and Aouderas, placing what is today northern Niger under rebel control for over three months. The government reacted quickly and harshly. Mali’s army, well-motivated and now well-equipped with new Soviet weapons, conducted vigorous counterinsurgency operations.
By the end of 1964, the government’s strongarm methods had crushed the rebellion. It then placed the Tuareg-populated northern regions under a repressive military administration. Many of Mali’s Tuareg fled as refugees to neighboring countries. While the government had succeeded in ending the rebellion, its coercive measures alienated many Tuaregs who had not supported the insurgents. Atrocities and human rights abuses on both sides contributed to a climate of fear and distrust in the north. And while the government subsequently announced several programs to improve local infrastructure and economic opportunity, it lacked the resources to follow through on most of them. As a result, Tuareg grievances remained largely unaddressed, and a seething resentment continued in many Tuareg communities after 1964.
Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995)
From 1990 to 1995, a rebellion by various Tuareg groups took place in Niger and Mali, to achieve autonomy or form their own nation-state. The insurgency occurred in a period following the regional famine of the 1980s and subsequent refugee crisis, and a time of generalized political repression and crisis in both nations. The conflict is one in a series of Tuareg-based insurgencies in the colonial and post-colonial history of these nations. In Niger, it is also referred to as the Second or Third Tuareg Rebellion, a reference to the pre-independence rebellions in 1916. In fact, the nomadic Tuareg confederations have come into sporadic conflict with the sedentary communities of the region ever since they migrated from the Maghreb into the Sahel region between the 7th and 14th centuries CE.
The insurgency occurred in a period following the regional famine of the 1980s and subsequent refugee crisis, and a time of generalized political repression and crisis in both nations. The government reacted quickly and harshly. Mali’s army, well-motivated and now well-equipped with new Soviet weapons, conducted vigorous counterinsurgency operations. By the end of 1994, the government’s strongarm methods had crushed the rebellion, and it then placed the Tuareg-populated northern regions under a repressive military administration. Many of Mali’s Tuareg fled as refugees to neighboring countries.
While the government had succeeded in ending the rebellion, its coercive measures alienated many Tuaregs who had not supported the insurgents. Atrocities and human rights abuses on both sides contributed to a climate of fear and distrust in the North. And while the government subsequently announced several programs to improve local infrastructure and economic opportunity, it lacked the resources to follow through on most of them.
Tuareg rebellion (2007–2009)
The main rebel group in Niger was the Niger Movement for Justice (MNJ), led by Aghaly ag Alambo and Mohamed Acharif. The main rebel group in Mali was Democratic Alliance for Change (ADC), which later splintered into factions led by Ibrahim Ag Bahanga and Amada Ag Bibi. Some former Tuareg rebel leaders from the 1990s, such as Rhissa Ag Boula and Iyad Ag Ghaly, also played a role in the conflict.
The rebellion resulted in hundreds of casualties, thousands of displaced people, and disruption of tourism and uranium mining in the region. It also attracted the attention and intervention of regional and international actors, such as Algeria, Libya, France, and the United States. The rebellion ended with peace deals brokered by Algeria and Libya in 2009.
The rebellion began in February 2007 in Niger, where the MNJ attacked military and mining targets. In September 2007, fighting spread to Mali, where a splinter faction of the 2006, ADC resumed hostilities. The rebels faced military counterattacks, diplomatic pressure, and factional divisions. Algeria and Libya mediated peace talks in Mali and Niger, respectively, leading to ceasefires and disarmament in 2008 and 2009.
Tuareg rebellion (2012)
The rebellion was led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and was part of a series of insurgencies by traditionally nomadic Tuaregs which date back at least to 1916. The MNLA was formed by former insurgents and a significant number of heavily armed Tuaregs who fought in the Libyan Civil War. At the same time, they also got involved in the Mali War and Second Libyan Civil War.
Tuareg involvement in the Mali War (2012–)
The Tuareg rebellion of 2012 was the early phase of the Mali War. From January to April 2012, a war was waged against the Malian government by rebels to attain independence for the northern region of Mali, known as Azawad. The rebellion was led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) and was part of a series of insurgencies by traditionally nomadic Tuaregs which date back at least to 1916. The MNLA was formed by former insurgents and a significant number of heavily armed Tuaregs who fought in the Libyan Civil War.
The Tuaregs were also involved in the Mali War that began in 2012. The Tuaregs initially fought alongside Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), to take control of northern Mali. However, the Tuaregs were eventually sidelined by the Islamists, who sought to impose their own version of Islamic law on the region. The French military intervened in January 2013, and with the help of African Union forces, they were able to drive the Islamists out of northern Mali. The Tuaregs subsequently signed a peace agreement with the Malian government in June 2013, but the agreement has been repeatedly violated.
Tuareg involvement in the Second Libyan Civil War (2014–2020)
The Tuareg people have been involved in the Second Libyan Civil War (2014–2020) in various ways. The conflict was fought between several armed groups, but mainly the House of Representatives (HoR) and the Government of National Accord (GNA), for six years from 2014 to 2020. The Tuareg militias of Ghat (TMG) are ethnic Tuareg tribal militias, operating in South-West Libya desert areas during the Second Libyan Civil War.
In southern Libya, ethnic Tuareg and Toubou brigades around Awbari renewed their allegiance to the GNA following the Libyan National Army’s (LNA) defeats. These militias have already targeted LNA forces in southern Libya, helping to restore GNA control over the oil fields in the areas near and west of Awbari.
Nation of Azawad
Azawad may face challenges in gaining international recognition. The article states that the African Union’s constitution does not allow for the alteration of colonial borders, and there is no strong political basis for the establishment of a new state. Additionally, the region’s history and the fact that the MNLA, the main Tuareg rebel group, has formed an uneasy partnership with a more stridently Islamist militant group, may also complicate Azawad’s bid for recognition. However, it is important to note that the MNLA has vowed to expel Al Qaeda from the region, which could potentially strengthen their case for recognition.
Major Sources:
Islam and Anticolonial Rebellions in North and West Africa, 1914–1918 by Jonathan Krause, University of Wolverhampton
A Southern View on the Tuareg Rebellions in Mali by Cambridge University Press
Identity and Conflict: Evidence from Tuareg Rebellion in Mali by Maxim Ananyev, University of Melbourne and Michael Poyker, University of Texas at Austin
CHAPTER FIVE The Tuareg Insurgency in Mali, 2006–2009 from Insurgency to Stability: Volume II: Insights from Selected Case Studies
