How Transcendentalism Changed Architecture — and How it will Save the World
In the late 1820s, a philosophical movement began to stir in the United States that would transform the country, and soon the world. Rooted in the recently flourishing movements Romanticism and Skepticism, and joined by the emerging Unitarian movement, Transcendentalism emerged, carrying with it new perspectives on justice, spirituality, and the environment. Transcendentalism shifted American ideology to seek out individualism and a deeper understanding of the universe, having profound social, political, and economic impacts; eventually developing into the civil rights movement and modern environmentalism. The founding fathers of the philosophy, among whom are Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Walt Whitman, would have an extraordinary impact on the American way of life, including the life and work of influential architect Frank Lloyd Wright.
Frank Lloyd Wright was instilled with Transcendentalism since he was a child, born into a Unitarian family which drew great inspiration from leader of the movement, Ralph Waldo Emerson (Uechi 9). Wright was taught as a child through the Froebel kindergarten methods, which paralleled Transcendental ideals of natural simplicity. As a young boy working on his family’s farm, Wright was inspired to become an architect after gaining an experiential understanding of nature and a newfound reverence for the land. This nature-centric attitude would become a trademark of his career. Wright reflected on these ideals in an interview with Mike Wallace in 1957. Wright’s life-long Unitarian ideas and focus on nature were abridged when Wallace asked, “Do you go to any specific church?” to which Wright replied, “…I put a capital N on Nature and go there” (Wright, 1957). Wright’s Transcendental inspirations were further reinforced as a young adult by his mentor, architect Louis Sullivan. Sullivan was greatly inspired by the Transcendental values of Frank Furness, for whom he worked. Sullivan learned from Furness how to express Transcendentalist ideals through his architecture, and passed these concepts down to Wright. Furness and Sullivan took the teachings of Transcendentalist philosophers to heart, often quoting their literature, and using their ideas as inspiration for their architectural practice. The Transcendental perspectives on culture, independence, form, and function emphasized by Sullivan would become defining aspects of Wright’s career (Uechi 18).
Ralph Waldo Emerson is credited as the father of Transcendentalism, and his teachings would spark a revolution of thought for the century to come. In his essay Nature, Emerson centered his investigations on the theory that any individual can achieve a transcendent understanding of the world through the power of intuition. He explored themes of unity, noting the way individual forms on a broad landscape become less distinct, forming an “integrated totality”. Emerson placed great focus on the dynamics of the perception of parts and whole. He asserted that each form in nature acts as a microcosm that reflects a greater whole, and as such, is a point of access to the entire universe. In Nature, he wrote: A leaf, a drop, a crystal, a moment of time is related to the whole, and partakes of the perfection of the whole. Each particle is a microcosm, and faithfully renders the likeness of the world. Because the parts represent the whole in miniature, it is consequently not necessary to see all of the parts to understand the whole (Emerson, 1836). Emerson’s exploration of this concept is comparable to the later established concept of fractal geometry, which describes a natural or mathematical phenomenon in which a repeating pattern is the same at every scale. Emerson’s explorations of individuality, unity, and nature are the foundational principles of Transcendentalism, which would go on to have profound impacts on every aspect of American life, including architecture.
Wright’s architectural practice was immensely reflective of Emerson’s ideas. For example, the unique ornamentation of both Sullivan and Wright’s structures demonstrated geometric patterns that repeated on multiple scales throughout the structure. Wright went on in his practice to further relate these patterns to the structures’ greater surrounding environments, a concrete vision of Emerson’s microcosmic theory. Wright’s Textile Block Houses are an excellent example of this principle, as Wright integrated repeated patterns throughout the houses on varying scales, from their small ornamentation, to their entire floor-plans. However, Unity Temple was one of Wright’s most profoundly Emersonian projects.
Finished in 1906, Unity Temple is a Unitarian Universalist church located outside of Chicago. The structure mimics the patterns of Wright’s kindergarten Froebel blocks, translating a naturally simplistic style; a stark deviation from the neo-classical architecture trending at the time. Wright recalled Emerson’s words when discussing the Temple’s design: The pleasure that a noble Temple gives us is only in part owing to the temple. It is exalted by the beauty of sunlight, the play of the clouds, the landscape around it, its grouping with the houses, trees and towers in its vicinity (Uechi 81). Directly influenced by these sentiments, Wright used Unity Temple to develop unity between nature, structure, and inhabitants. Stylized leaf patterns on the columns of the structure geometrically echo the foliage of surrounding trees. Long, horizontal forms mimic the landscape patterns of the Midwestern environment. Squares and rectangles repeat themselves throughout the temple on several scales. All of these aspects strongly demonstrate Emerson’s discussions of the repeating geometry of nature. Wright also experimented with Emerson’s exaltation of sunlight. Warm sunlight filters through opaque glass from every direction in Unity Temple. While literally mirroring the characteristics of sunlight filtering through the surrounding foliage, this element is also a metaphorical representation of the Transcendentalist concept of the “over-soul”. Emerson described the over-soul as a spiritually unifying force, within which every man’s particular being is contained and made one with all other. (Uechi 90). Emerson often investigated the over-soul through a comparison to sunlight: From within or from behind, a light shines through us upon things, and makes us aware that we are nothing, but the light is all (Uechi 91). Wright’s dynamic use of light in Unity Temple therefore not only represents physical unity between the structure and the environment, but spiritually unity between each inhabitant.
The teachings of Emerson’s protégé, Henry David Thoreau, would become evident in Wright’s later work, coalescing Emerson’s ideals with new emphases on self-sufficiency, simplicity, and wilderness. Critic Theodore M. Brown asserts that “Thoreau’s ideas are fundamental to twentieth-century architectural thought… especially to that of Frank Lloyd Wright” (Uechi 97). Most famous for his book Walden, the name of which was inspired by his predecessor, Thoreau describes his thoughts and experiences after leaving society to live a humble life in the wilderness. Thoreau’s teachings on simplicity, nature, and self-sufficient living secured Wright’s focus on simple, organic design. Thoreau even specifically mentions architecture in Walden: Not that all architectural ornament is to be neglected even in the rudest periods; but let our houses first be lined with beauty, where they come in contact with our lives (Thoreau, 1854). This concept would reinforce Wright’s Japanese-inspired mantra: “the elimination of the nonessential”. Thoreau is also well known for his establishment of the concept of civil disobedience, an idea which would come to play a major role in civil movements around the world. It then follows that Thoreau’s increasing influence on Wright coincided with Wright’s increasing rejection of conformity, and deviation from normative behavior. According to Wallace, Wright was considered by some, “America’s foremost social rebel” (Wright, 1957). Speaking on his own estate in his Autobiography, in a manner much comparable to Thoreau, Wright stated, “I went to live, if I could, an unconventional life” (Abernethy 52).
The philosophies of Emerson and Thoreau produced new Transcendentalism-inspired artists and writers, including one of the most famous American poets, Walt Whitman. Whitman would become very dear to Wright, his poetry reiterating Wright’s most fundamental convictions. In 1855, Whitman published his famous Leaves of Grass, a collection of poetry. He would publish a second version of the book a year later, containing not only more poems, but also a letter of praise on the collection from Emerson himself. Leaves of Grass would continue to be read and praised by Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, strengthening their Transcendental values about individualism and democracy. One of the most famous poems in Leaves of Grass, “Song of Myself”, is one of the most indicative of Whitman’s Transcendentalism. “Song of Myself” simultaneously praises the power of the individual, while humbly recognizing the unity between all individuals. In the first stanza, Whitman states: “every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you” (Whitman, 1855). Following Emerson’s ideas about unity, Whitman explores the concept of unique individuals as part of a unified whole, comparing individuals to the leaves that make up a plant. These concepts produced Whitman’s praise for democracy and individual freedom, which would inspire Wright’s own exaltation of the American experience. Whitman’s literature went on to adorn many of Wright’s works and writings throughout his career. John Lloyd Wright, son of Frank Lloyd Wright, even speculates that Wright’s idea for Broadacre City was derived from Whitman’s ‘Song of the Broad Axe’ (Abernethy 47). Whitman’s inspirational democratic philosophies were evident when Wright was asked in his 1957 interview how he would change the way Americans live, to which he responded: “I would like to make it appropriate to the Declaration of Independence, to the center line of our freedom; I’d like to have a free architecture, I’d like to have architecture that belonged where you see it standing, and as a grace to the landscape instead of a disgrace. The letters we receive from our clients tell us how those buildings we built for them have changed the character of their whole lives and their whole existence. And it’s different now than it was before. Well, I’d like to do that for the country” (Wright, 1957).
Emerson and Thoreau’s explorations of nature and simplicity, combined with Thoreau and Whitman’s thoughts on society and individuality, would come to form the basis of Transcendentalism and the foundation of Wright’s career. Through these concepts, Wright established his signature architectural philosophy which is still practiced today, coined “Organic Architecture”. Organic Architecture promotes harmony between humanity and the natural world, achieved through sympathetic and well integrated design approaches that allow the aspects of the structure to become part of a unified, interrelated composition (“Organic Architecture”). Organic Architecture celebrates self-sufficiency, unity, and the soul connection between all living things, much inspired by Emerson, Thoreau, and Whitman. Organic Architecture wholly integrates a structure with its environment “in an act of architectural Transcendentalism” (Sims).
Throughout the course of his career, Wright clung to his roots in Transcendentalism, implementing the core practices of Organic Architecture, despite drastically changing styles and technologies. In mid-career, he arrived at the climax of Transcendental architecture, designing and building what is still known as the most famous house in the country. Perched upon a rocky hillside waterfall in the forests of Pennsylvania sits Wright’s “Fallingwater”. Fallingwater is the archetype of organic architecture, completely integrating both the form and function that nature has to offer. Stream, mountain, and sun all weave in and out of the structure seamlessly, as Wright expertly blurred the lines between interior and environment.
Fallingwater extends beyond Wright’s earlier work, reestablishing him at the forefront of modern architecture through its profound implementation of matchless form with unparalleled function in a unique setting. Wright rejected the “boxy” features of trending European Modernism, using his Transcendental ideals to set a new standard for modernism through organic form. Throughout Fallingwater, Wright incorporates raw rock surfaces and other aspects of the mountainside within the building, uniting the structure with its natural foundation. In a sense, Wright moves beyond bio-mimicry, and allows the structure and the Earth to become wholly united. His careful employment of glass and balcony invites the outside in, and his interior design mirrors the surrounding forest. Three quarters of a century later, Wright’s modern structure still stands timelessly integrated with the environment around it. Neil Levine, Professor of History of Art and Architecture at Harvard University, declares, “In Fallingwater, you do not ask where the house ends and the natural environment begins. Instead, you ask when — and the answer is never” (Duggan). Wright used Transcendental philosophies to set his work apart from anything that had ever been done before, as well as anything that has ever been done since. In his interview with Wallace he reiterated this truth, stating, “I’ve been accused of saying I was the greatest architect in the world, and if I had said so, I don’t think it would be very arrogant because I don’t believe there are many, if any. For five hundred years what we call architecture has been phony… In the sense that it was not innate, it wasn’t organic; it didn’t have the character of Nature” (Wright, 1957).
Edgar Kaufmann Jr., who’s family lived in Fallingwater, recognized Wright’s concept of “Organic Architecture” as a direct result of his Transcendentalist background (Wiebe). Transcendentalists, especially with the inception of Thoreau’s literature, expressed deep ties to nature, believing in profound connections between people, the natural world, and art. Emerson ventured that man can ‘improve’ nature through art, asserting that an artist’s intuition is intimately connected to the Over-Soul: Thus, in art does nature work through the will of a man filled with the beauty of her first works (Uechi 92). Following Emerson, Wright consistently focused on the improvement of nature through his art. “Can you say,” Wright challenged his apprentices, “when your building is complete, that the landscape is more beautiful than it was before?” (Wiebe). This principle is undoubtedly evident in Fallingwater. Wright preserved the natural features of the land, even bending a beam to accommodate a pre-existing tree (Wiebe). He artfully balanced his design on the landscape, while maintaining the site’s dynamics, a Transcendental work of art which proves to be timeless.
Wright’s Transcendental integration of architecture with nature defines his astounding career. In his own words, “…there is no true understanding of any art without some knowledge of its philosophy. Only then does its meaning come clear” (Wright, 1957). Wright’s work establishes a tangible representation of Transcendentalism, stating boldly his views about man and nature, about individualism, about society and freedom. Now, over five decades after Wright’s death, the tangible representation of Transcendentalism is reemerging, if not on principle, then on necessity. In his essay, “Walking”, Thoreau states: I wish to speak a word for Nature, for absolute freedom and wildness, as contrasted with a freedom and culture merely civil, — to regard man as an inhabitant or a part and parcel of Nature, rather than a member of society (Thoreau, 1862). Analogous to Emerson’s investigations of the microcosmic nature of the universe, Thoreau sustains that humans are ecological components of the natural world. As modern society damages and exploits the global ecosystem at an exponential rate, Thoreau’s perspective grows increasingly indispensable. Society’s established rejection of the role of humanity within nature is daily moving the species closer to devastation. Today, when a major percentage of all climate-change inducing greenhouse gases in the U.S. are produced from human habitation, Wright’s accentuated demonstration of organic living is no longer a luxury, but an obligation. Wright recognized the United States as a Utopia, not only for its democracy and freedom, but for its environment. He rejected both classical and modern styles to preserve and facilitate the wondrous environment this country offers. His thirst for human coexistence with nature must now become a foundational principle of design, for the sake of nature itself, humanity included. The fate of the species hinges on the continuation of Transcendental ideals. As Whitman concluded almost 200 years ago, humans are a microcosmic reflection of the world; if humanity continues to reject its role within the natural world, the natural world will not hesitate to reject humanity.
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