Dynastic (Pharaonic) Egypt
When we think of Ancient Egypt, we often think of the age of the pharaohs, of biblical stories of its greatness and its oppression of Jews. In recent times, however, many scholars revisited its history based on excavations, stories and history written in their native tongue to extract the truth from myth and hyperbole. For instance, it has been reported on numerous occasions that Jewish slaves built the pyramids, but this is untrue.
The pyramids were built centuries before Abraham’s trip to Egypt and over a thousand years before Moses. Moreover, they were not built by slaves, but rather, using organized work camps as part of a national work project. Egypt has long been misunderstood, hidden behind the mystique of mummies, the majestic pyramids and the stories written in the Bible. Its influence on Western Civilization obscured by the shadows of Greece and Rome. Dynastic or pharaonic Egypt primarily consists of three Kingdoms, labeled as Old, Middle and New with three Intermediate Periods. Kingdoms and Intermediate Periods consist of a series of dynasties.
The Old Kingdom
The predynastic or archaic period lasted from around 3150 to approximately 2686 BCE. The Old Kingdom lasted from 2686 to 2181 (3rd-6th dynasties). This was the first age of pyramid building. Djoser’s step pyramid, at Saqqara, was the first to be built in stone and was constructed under the direction of the vizier, Imhotep. He was the world’s first recorded polymath. Imhotep was not only renowned for his architectural achievements, but his knowledge of medicine and healing and is often associated with the Greek and Roman god of medicine Aesculapius.
The first true pyramid and the great pyramids of the Giza plateau, were erected during the 4th dynasty which is often referred to as the Fabulous Fourth dynasty. It is also believed that the Sphinx was built at this time. However, there are some scholars that believe that the Sphinx predates the pyramids based on weather erosion patterns. During the reign of Snefru, three major innovations occurred that would have lasting impacts on the rest of Egyptian history. First was the building of the first true pyramid. Second, was the expansion of trade and an international presence and third was artistic and cultural standards. The future kingdoms that emerged from the south, always looked back to the Old Kingdom with great reverence.
It was also during the Old Kingdom that the pharaoh Pepi II of the 6th Dynasty ruled for over ninety-five years; one of the longest reigns in human history. Toward the end of his reign, there were signs of Egypt’s decline perhaps best articulated in its literature. It was also during this period that foreigners flocked into Egypt mainly from the northeast. The southern base which had been its foundation was pushed further south. This decline is often referred to as the First Intermediate Period and it lasted from 2181–2055 (7th -11th dynasties).
The First Intermediate and the Middle Kingdom
The First Intermediate Period, like all seceding Intermediate Periods, was a time of chaos ruled by interlopers detached from a national and stable governmental structure and innovation that gave rise to Egypt’s greatness. These periods are normally initiated by foreign influx into the Nile Valley. They represent periods of decline in the Egyptian infrastructure, emulation and exploitation of Egypt’s past accomplishments.
During the Intermediate Periods, the native rulers retreated to Egypt’s South and would rise again to conquer the North and replenish and resurrect the nation, akin to the annual flooding of the Nile, bringing with it fresh ideas linked to the traditions of the previous kingdom.
The Middle Kingdom 2055 to 1650 (11th - 13th dynasties), like Egypt’s legendary phoenix, rose from the ashes of the First Intermediate Period. This was the first resurrection of Egypt and a return to prosperity and pyramid building. In many ways, the Middle Kingdom looked back nostalgically at the Old Kingdom with its pyramids and stability. But it moved forward and developed a culture that can be uniquely identified. It bore the characteristics of continuity and change that would become the leitmotif of Egypt’s resurrections.
It was in the 11th dynasty under the rule of Mentuhotep II that the restoration process began. However, it was the 12th Dynasty that set the tone for the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom was the age of Amenemhats and Senusrets, with the high-water mark of the dynasty being achieved under the reign of Senusret III. Many of these pharaohs ruled concurrently in the later years of the previous pharaoh with a string of Amenemhets and Senusrets alternating. They abandoned the capital at Memphis in favor of Waset (Thebes). Most scholars believe that Abraham’s sojourn into Egypt happened during the Middle Kingdom.
The first great Pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom was Amenemhet I (1991–1962 BCE), and he set the standards that were followed by successive pharaohs of this dynasty. His son and their descendants ruled Egypt for two centuries. It is from this pharaoh that The Instructions of Amenemhet to his son are known to us. Although the author is unknown, most Egyptologists believe it was his successor Senusret I(Greek name, Sesostris) (1971–1926 BCE) who was also a great pharaoh and perhaps the first to erect an obelisk.
It is under this pharaoh that we get the expansion of Egypt into foreign lands. Senusret I was followed by Amenemhet II (1929–1895 BCE) who established foreign trade with artifacts found in the Levant. He was succeeded by Senusret II (1897–1878) who was seceded by Senusret III (1878–1853). He was a 6’6” military leader who dug a canal around the Aswan cataract. Senusret III was succeeded by Amenemhet III (1842–1797 BCE) who had expeditions to the Sinai and built two pyramids and an enormous labyrinth. The last of this series of pharaohs was Amenemhet IV (1798–1776).
A signature landmark of the Middle Kingdom was the obelisk (erroneously called Cleopatra’s needles), a symbol, of resurrection and rebirth. This is a tradition that continued during the New Kingdom. The Romans were obsessed with them and Rome is now the home of the most obelisks in the world. Many reside in large cities around the world with the largest being the Washington Monument located in Washington DC.
The Second Intermediate (Hyksos)
The Middle Kingdom was followed by the Second Intermediate Period 1650 to 1550 BCE (15th -17th dynasties). Once again, a foreign influx led to the decline of the Middle Kingdom and the expulsion of its ruling class to the South. During this period, central power eroded. This was the age of the Hyksos who were foreign rulers, and many scholars think that this is a period contemporary with the story of Joseph in the Bible. The Hyksos were strengthened by the steady increase of immigration until their numbers were ripe for a full invasion or take over. The literature of Ancient Egypt is full of contempt and disdain for the Hyksos.
Many scholars believe that the Hyksos were Semitic and possibly the primogenitors of Jews in Egypt. Notwithstanding, a distinction was made along ethnic as well as cultural lines. Moreover, instead of worshiping Osiris; they worshiped Seth the evil one that killed Osiris by cutting him up into thirteen pieces. The Hyksos rulers assumed pharaoh’s role and are credited with bringing the horse and the chariot into Egypt. In Egypt’s long history, this appears to be one of the few times when an idea from the outside was adopted. Nonetheless, this was an age of decline and disunity much like the First Intermediate Period. Meanwhile, there was another set of pharaohs that ruled at Thebes. This has led to problems with the interpretation of Manetho’s list of Pharaohs.
The New Kingdom
The New Kingdom began with the 18th dynasty. This dynasty left some of the greatest artifacts as a testimony of their splendor, genius and greatness. It was the dynasty of some of Egypt’s most famous pharaohs. They did not build pyramids, like the days of old, however once again; Egypt went on a massive building exercise this time at modern-day Karnak and Luxor. In addition to the building of edifices, Egypt expanded its borders and influence in the region. Throughout the major part of this dynasty, Egypt maintained control of the Mediterranean region. First, because of its military power and second because of its ability to govern using the Phoenicians and others as vassals.
Discoveries made by Egyptologist John Darnell indicate that the Theban dynasty in the south that preceded the New Kingdom was far more advanced than was previously thought. Although the revolution was spearheaded by his father Seqenenre Tao and older brother Kamose, it was the Pharaoh Ahmose I (1570–1546) that finally expelled the Hyksos and began the New Kingdom 1550–1069 BCE (18th–20th dynasties) and ended the Second Intermediate Period. Many scholars contend that he was the pharaoh referred to in the bible as: There came a pharaoh that knew not Joseph. Thereby aligning Joseph’s reign with the Hyksos.
The expulsion of the Hyksos brought a new period of prosperity, power and prestige. However, life under the Hyksos seemed to have taught Egypt a valuable lesson. In order to protect itself from foreign invasions, it needed to establish buffer states. The beginning of this kingdom was led by a succession of strong military leaders. Amenhotep I (1551–1524 BCE) continued to expand the boundaries of Egypt. Moreover, during this dynasty, a professional army was raised, and Egypt expanded its influence into Palestine and Syria.
Although Amenhotep I left no heirs, he was succeeded by Thutmose I (1524–1518) another great military leader. He led a Mesopotamian expedition to the Euphrates River and south into Nubia to the fourth cataract. He constructed the first tomb in the Valley of the Kings which was to become a trademark not only of this dynasty but future dynasties. He was followed by Thutmose II (1518–1504) and then by Queen Hatshepsut (1498–1483 BCE) the first female pharaoh and the most powerful female in antiquity. She later co-ruled with Thutmose III (1504–1450). In later years, for unknown reasons, Thutmose III tried to destroy the legacy of Queen Hatshepsut.
Thutmose III was the greatest military leader in Egyptian history often called the “Napoleon of Egypt” (which is a misnomer since Napoleon should be called the Thutmose III of France). He was a natural-born leader and strategist who solidified Egyptian power throughout the Mediterranean. He was followed by another great warrior Amenhotep II (1453–1419 BCE) who was succeeded by Thutmose IV (1419–1386 BCE) who is often credited with the restoration of the Sphinx. He was followed by Amenhotep III (1386–1349 BCE). Amenhotep III was more of a diplomat and a great builder than a conqueror. He was responsible for constructing the two large statues known as Colossus of Memnon.
He was succeeded by Amenhotep IV (1350–1334 BCE) better known as Akhenaton “the Heretic King” or perhaps better yet “the husband of Nefertiti.” He is often overshadowed by the bust of his wife Nefertiti and treasure of his son/ brother King Tut. It is important to note, that Egypt brought princesses from foreign lands, particularly under the reign of Amenhotep II, but they never sent their princesses to foreign lands. Some scholars believe that Nefertiti may have been a descendent of a foreign princess. Notwithstanding, Nefertiti and Akhenaton appeared to be inseparable.
Akhenaton is often called the world’s first monotheist. He abandoned the worship of all gods including Osiris in favor of the God Aton(Aten). The birth of monotheism is often attributed to Abraham and the Jewish heritage . Notwithstanding, they believed that other gods existed but that their God was superior (known as henotheism). Akhenaton, however, did not believe in the existence of other gods (which is monotheism). He was a religious zealot that was not interested in foreign affairs. As a result, the empire built by his predecessors began to decline. He was succeeded by the boy- king Tutankhamen (Tut) more famous for his tomb than his tenure as pharaoh. The familial relationship between King Tut and Akhenaton has long been debated. It is now believed by some Egyptologists that King Tut was the son of Akhenaton and his sister.
Unlike the aforementioned pharaohs, King Tut was an insignificant pharaoh virtually unknown before the turn of the 20th century. Many scholars contend that his tomb was not robbed because it was missed by grave-robbers in search of a larger treasure. Based on King Tut’s short reign, and insignificance, one could only imagine the priceless treasure buried with other pharaohs. The boy-king, however, was not equip to handle an empire that was in religious transition. The 18th dynasty virtually ended with the death/murder of King Tut. The religious monotheistic revolution started by Akhenaton was over, and the worship of gods was restored.
One aspect of the 18th dynasty was the reverence for women started by Ahmose I and continued throughout the dynasty. More than any other dynasty, the presence of powerful women is apparent. Perhaps best exemplified by the first female pharaoh Hatshepsut and the influence of his mother, Queen Tiye, and Nefertiti on Akhenaton's religious philosophy.
The 19th Dynasty begins with Ramses I (1293–1291) Ra moses meaning son of Ra. His rule was brief and followed by his son Seti I (1291–1278). Seti which means: follower of Seth, the god that the Hyksos worshiped. He, like his father, was a vizier and a military man. Seti I was followed by Ramses II (1279–1212) known to us as Ramses the Great.
If ever there was a spin doctor in Egypt, Ramses the Great was one. For example, the battle of Kadesh with the Hittites was at best a draw but Ramses the Great much like Napoleon’s later lost in Egypt turned this event into a glorious victory. He built temples all over Egypt the most famous is Abu Simbel and he ruled for 67 years. He ruled so long that most of the population upon his death could not remember a time when he was not pharaoh.
There are some Egyptologists that think that Rameses the Great was not so great when compared to some of the little known pharaohs of the Middle and New Kingdoms. Some have gone as far as to call “the Great” a misnomer. They contend that other pharaohs, particularly the ones that started kingdoms, are the cornerstones of Egypt's restored greatness while Rameses and his descendants lived off the fat of the land and eventually drove the New Kingdom into decline. His popularity stems from his longevity, his monuments and the possibility that he was the pharaoh of the Exodus.
The date of the Exodus, however, is difficult to assess. Moreover, some scholars have a problem with the Exodus narrative and question if it really happened. Although the Egyptians constantly mention the reign of the Hyksos with disdain, there is not one word of a biblical Exodus as described in the Old Testament. Sigmund Freud, who was Jewish, in his last book entitled: Moses and Monotheism(1939) points out that the name Moses is Egyptian for child and goes as far as to proclaim that Moses was not Jewish, but rather, an Egyptian follower of Akhenaton who introduced monotheism to the Jews.
The next pharaoh was Menrptah, (1212–1202 BCE) the thirteenth son of Ramses. He was in his 60s when he assumed the throne. He only became pharaoh because he was the only living son of Rameses. He was succeeded by his son Amemesses (1202–1199 BCE), then Seti II (1199–1193 BCE) then Siptah (1193–1187 BCE), then another female pharaoh Twosret (1187–1185 BCE) who ruled for two years. The 19th Dynasty, however, did not follow directly in the footsteps of the 18th Dynasty. For instance, under Ramses the Great, they moved the capital from Thebes to Per-Ramesses outside of Avaris. This would prove to be problematic because it allowed the priest at Thebes to consolidate power and thus challenge the pharaohs of the 20th dynasty.
The 20th dynasty, often called the Ramessid pharaohs because of the number of pharaohs with the name Ramses, was founded by Setnakht, (Seth is victorious) (1185–1182 BCE). He was succeeded by Ramses III (1182–1151 BCE) and after him, Egypt is in a clear state of decline as succeeding Ramses came to the throne. Ramses IV (1151–1145 BCE) Ramses V (1145–1141 BCE) Ramses VI (1141–1133 BCE) Ramses VII (1133–1126 BCE) Ramses VIII (1126 BCE) Ramses IX (1126–1108 BCE) Ramses X (1108–1098 BCE) Ramses XI (1098–1070 BCE).
The Third Intermediate Period and the Nubian Dynasty
True to the leitmotif previously discussed, the New Kingdom was followed by a Third Intermediate Period from 1070–747 BCE (21st to 24th Dynasties). During the 21st dynasty, Egypt is divided once again. However, unlike the previous Intermediate Periods, Egypt would not emerge stronger than before. This was another protracted period of decline in which kings from rival dynasties ruled concurrently. The priests rule the South from Thebes and the North was invaded by the Libyans.
The 25th dynasty was the Nubian dynasty under Piy and his descendants and they first ruled southern Egypt from Napata while the Libyans ruled northern Egypt. However, unity was once again restored by men of the south as the Nubians conquered all of Egypt and found what is often referred to as the Kushite (Nubian) dynasty (747–671). The Nubians had great reverence for Egypt as they shared a similar history. In this regard, they tried to restore Egypt to its past greatness, They also built small pyramids in their native land that were used as burial sites.
The Nubians were not successful in their long-term restoration of Egypt’s greatness and only lasted for one dynasty. Egypt was surrounded by emerging empires that would continue to challenge it. The Assyrians gained control over Egypt and ruled until 626 when they were defeated by the Babylonians. The Babylonians were defeated by the Persians who ruled Egypt for several dynasties before they were conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.
The Greco-Roman Era
The conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great was the beginning of the Greco-Roman era and the spread of Hellenism throughout the Mediterranean region. When he died in 323 BCE, his empire was divided between his generals and Ptolemy inherited Egypt. It was the era of fourteen Ptolemies and one legendary woman, Cleopatra VII. The lover of both Caesar and Mark Anthony, she was not attractive (no Elizabeth Taylor). Notwithstanding, part of her allure and attraction was that she was a woman of power in control of a country something that was unheard of in Rome.
Her death in 30 BCE culminated the rule of the Greeks in Egypt and three millenniums of dynastic rule. This was the era of Cleopatra and Mark Anthony and as you can see, has little to nothing to do with the antiquity of the Ancient Egyptians except for the continuation of Egypt’s pharaonic system. During Cleopatra’s reign, the Greeks in Egypt tried to hold on to the last vestiges of Alexander the Great’s empire now under siege by the Romans.
Moreover, Cleopatra was the only Greek pharaoh that could read the hieroglyphics and she was by far the most Egyptianized. Cleopatra’s relationship to Pharaonic Egypt has been grossly overstated. Like her forefathers before her, she was a Macedonian Greek. Long gone was the greatness that we associate with Ancient Egypt. For instance, the obelisks named after her (Cleopatra’s needles) were first constructed two thousand years before her reign. After her death, Egypt fell into the waiting arms of Rome — as it made its transition from a Republic to an Empire three decades before the birth of Christ. It could, therefore, be said that Cleopatra is more related to Greco- Roman history than she is to the great pharaohs and edifices of Ancient Egypt.
There is much more to Ancient Egypt than, the bust of Nefertiti, the mystique of mummies and the pyramids, the treasure of King Tut and the stories in the Bible. Its greatness and contributions to the world are often trivialized or better yet misunderstood or misinterpreted. For instance, how did a society advance — in about five hundred years — from illiteracy to building three giant pyramids each consisting of 2, 500,000 perfectly cut two-ton blocks! Something that would be hard for the modern world to achieve with our current technology not to mention the tremendous cost. Rather than sensationalize this ancient civilization, we should try to understand its beginning, its middle and its end. In doing so we may better understand ourselves.
List of Dynasties in Ancient Egypt
EARLY KINGDOMS (3200- 2800 BCE)
PRE- DYNASTIC PERIOD
NAQADA III DYNASTY 0
FIRST DYNASTY (Menes)
SECOND DYNASTY
THE OLD KINGDOM (2800–2250 BCE) (Pyramid Age)
THIRD DYNASTY
FOURTH DYNASTY (Great Pyramids)
FIFTH DYNASTY
SIXTH DYNASTY
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (2250–2000 BCE)
SEVENTH, EIGHTH DYNASTIES
NINTH, TENTH DYNASTIES
MIDDLE KINGDOM (2000–1780 BCE)
ELEVENTH DYNASTY
TWELFTH DYNASTY
THIRTEENTH DYNASTY
SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1780–1546 BCE)
FOURTEENTH and FIFTEENTH
SIXTEENTH and SEVENTEENTH (HYKSOS)
SEVENTEENTH (THEBAN)
THE NEW KINGDOM (1546–1085 BCE)
EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY (Thutmose I-IV) (Hatshepsut) (Amenhotep I-IV) (Akhenaten)
NINETIETH DYNASTY (Ramesses I, II)
TWENTIETH DYNASTY (Ramesses III-XI)
THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1085–747 BCE)
TWENTY-FIRST
TWENTY-SECOND
TWENTY-THIRD
TWENTY-FOURTH (LIBYAN)
TWENTY-FIFTH (NUBIAN)(747–671)
LATE PERIOD ( 672–332)
TWENTY-SIXTH (ASSYRIAN)
TWENTY-SEVENTH (FRIST PERSIAN DYNASTY)
TWENTY-EIGHTH DYNASTY
TWENTY-NINTH DYNASTY
THIRTIETH DYNASTY (SECOND PERSIAN DYNASTY)
GREEK DYNASTIES (332–30 BCE)
MACEDONIAN (ALEXANDER THE GREAT)
PTOLEMAIC (CLEOPATRA VII)
