Unmanned Aerial Systems: A Maturing GEOINT Tool
By Andrew Shepherd; Shawn Kalis, Ph.D.; and Ronald Storm
This article was originally published in USGIF’s State & Future of GEOINT Report 2017. Download the full report here.
The past few years have seen dramatic advances in the capabilities and applications of all types of unmanned systems, progress which has been paralleled by equally impressive reductions in cost, complexity of operations, and regulatory barriers. Perhaps the most notable changes in the United States have been in the realm of unmanned aerial or unmanned aircraft systems (UAS).
For the past decade, UAS have been considered large platforms requiring large investments to capture quality imaging. Due to the recent investment and advancements in technology by companies such as DJI, which in 2015 was valued at $10 billion,[1] remote-controlled aircraft previously considered toys have become professional products with truly autonomous flight capabilities, 4K imagers, image stabilization and collision avoidance systems, 30-minute flight times, integrated mission-planning capabilities, and even computer vision capable systems, such as Follow Me, which will use visual recognition to track individuals. [2],[3] This new generation of UAS, which is often referred to as “Prosumer Grade,” has changed the price point to collect recent, rapid, and relevant imagery for applications where imagery collections were cost-prohibitive.[4]
DroneApps, which recently developed a case study on imagery costs, said: “One area where the price comparison is relatively simple is unit price. The total cost of the launch and operation of the Landsat 8 imaging satellite was estimated by NASA to be in the region of $855 million. A Cessna 172 airplane, a model regularly used for aerial imaging, costs roughly $300,000. A professional automated mapping drone like senseFly’s eBee RTK costs about $25,000, while DJI’s Phantom 3 UAS, which hovers on the border of the consumer and professional markets, is around $1,000.”[5] When imagery costs drop orders of magnitude, it is valuable to explore the advancement in the new generation of Prosumer UAS.
Before exploring the current state, future, and implications of UAS in GEOINT, it is helpful to establish a standard definition from which to build a common understanding.
UAS are also known by other names, including remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), unmanned aircraft (UA), unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), and perhaps most commonly — and sometimes controversially — drones. For the purposes of this article, we will use the UAS nomenclature because it best describes the technology as a multifaceted system, many of the diverse onboard sensor systems directly apply to GEOINT, and it is the term used by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) when referring to unmanned systems operating in the National Airspace System (NAS). As the UAS is a system of systems, it may be divided into the following six major elements: 1) the aircraft itself, a broad variety of which have been developed to serve an ever-expanding application space; 2) the payload, which are tools carried to meet specific objectives driven by the UAS mission requirements, often taking the form of a sensor — a key component for GEOINT applications — with the sensor type being determined by the collection requirements; 3) the command and control suite used to guide the UAS to and from the mission areas; 4) the communication data links that carry the command and control and sensor information to and from the platform; 5) the launch and recovery components; and 6) the most important component, the human in the loop. It is important to recognize the true system of systems nature of UAS, particularly those that have utility for GEOINT applications, always keeping the requirements and objectives in the forefront when considering the value of UAS for any application.
Small UAS: What Has Changed?
The intelligence and defense communities have benefited from the integration of UAS capabilities for several decades. However, many of the advantages were realized in overseas operations, within restricted airspace, and through waivers that allowed operation in the U.S. An impetus for the sea change from solely government or research and development activities to general commercialization has been the rapid development and integration of commercial technologies in the small UAS and sensor systems, at affordable prices, that now meet market needs in a broad range of use cases. The cost of entry has decreased from hundreds of thousands to just a few thousand dollars for a GEOINT-capable, professional UAS solution. Sensor technologies that were once only carried on board a large UAS, like the U.S. Air Force Predator or Global Hawk, are now mounted on lightweight UAS used by police departments, power companies, agricultural firms, videography businesses, college researchers, etc. The accessibility of such systems is due to the significant reduction in aircraft and sensor size, weight, and power (SWAP) requirements brought about by micro-computers, integrated circuitry, the developments in solid state memory, and wafer-level optics and packaging technologies, just to name a few. In addition to the familiar cellphone electro-optical (EO) still and motion video cameras that were first mounted on small commercial UAVs, there now exist miniaturized multispectral and infrared (IR) technologies that have become readily available for use on small commercial platforms. Additionally, 12-ounce phased-array radar systems and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) systems that weigh as little as three pounds are starting to make their way into the commercial market.[6] The resulting market pressure has played a significant role in encouraging additional corporate investment, expanding UAS education and training programs, and driving a race toward the establishment of commercially competitive advantages that leverage UAS capabilities — all activities that increase the demand for small UAS to fly in the NAS.
In August 2016, the United States took a significant step toward the full integration of UAS into the NAS with the FAA issuance of regulations governing their common use for non-recreational purposes. This was a seminal event marking one of the most significant changes to Federal Aviation Regulations in decades. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 107, “Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems,” is the rule that now enables the commercial use of small UAS without the need for regulatory exemption or waiver.
Part 107 has established clear guidance related to operating limitations, remote pilot certification, maintenance and inspection, and other key aspects of UAS use. For example, the rule states that aircraft must weigh less than 55 pounds and be operated at speeds less than 100 miles per hour. Small unmanned aircraft cannot be flown at altitudes more than 400 feet above ground level or from a structure, at nighttime, or from a moving aircraft or vehicle unless it is over a sparsely populated area. Visual-line-of-sight to the aircraft and visibility of three miles from the control station must be maintained at all times, and flights over people not directly participating in the UAV’s operation are not permitted. For many small UAS operations that support civil and commercial GEOINT activities, the latitude provided in the new regulations is sufficient. However, exemptions may still be sought through a waiver process by which the FAA may grant permission for flights not otherwise allowed, including those at faster speeds, higher altitudes, beyond-line-of-sight, or after dark. Law enforcement and firefighting activities, post-disaster recovery and relief operations, and private sector manufacturers and technology developers conducting research and development, crew training, market surveys, and flight demonstration activities are a few examples where waivers may be requested.
Part 107 also established a remote pilot-in-command role and an associated remote pilot certificate. The FAA requires the remote pilot to pass a practical knowledge test at a designated testing center and be vetted by the Transportation Security Administration. Traditional manned aircraft pilots who are certified and current are simply required to complete an online training course provided by the FAA to receive their new certificate. Ultimately, the remote pilot is responsible for the safety of operations and compliance with all applicable regulations. Of course, to achieve and maintain safe operations, additional training on specific UAS, safety risk management, and concepts of operations may be required beyond the minimum certification requirements set forth by the FAA. An example of additional requirements is training qualifications for pilots who fly over forest fires, per regulations from the Bureau of Land Management.[7] Likewise, other organizations are preparing for future anticipated regulations to certify small UAS pilots who fly for commercial fire departments, security companies, and disaster relief organizations.[8]
In addition to the regulations, it is important to consider the legal and ethical factors that may influence the use of UAS for a potential application, particularly those with GEOINT remote sensing requirements. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that an individual generally does not have a Fourth Amendment right with respect to aerial surveillance, but some state courts have arrived at different conclusions in specific cases related to privacy expectations associated with aerial sensing. However, the advancement of technology can cause changes to the reasonable legal expectation of privacy and what the public deems acceptable. As public acceptance of UAS operations becomes more commonplace — for example receiving packages and food deliveries via UAS — awareness of local, state, federal, and even international laws and how they may influence a proposed UAS implementation will be necessary to ensure compliance and reduction of legal liability. Knowledge of such laws will become more important as UAS package delivery systems become routine, increasing the probability of dropped packages or other accidents, and private security and law enforcement missions become normal, requiring oversight to protect civil liberties.
Case law has been developed related to the ownership of airspace collection of aerial sensed data and expectations of privacy,[9],[10] but in most cases these are still directly related to traditional manned collection platforms. However, in recent years, privacy advocates have increased efforts to enact laws regulating the use of UAS by law enforcement, insisting states require warrants before the government may use a UAS, and the manned collection examples provide precedent that can be leveraged for UAS cases. The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) convened a series of efforts to increase privacy protection. On February 15, 2015, President Obama issued a presidential memorandum instructing NTIA to “convene such a process to develop and communicate best practices for privacy, accountability, and transparency issues regarding commercial and private UAS use in the National Airspace System.”[11]
The significant increase in civil and commercial applications of UAS will inevitably continue to result in legal actions, providing a clearer understanding, via the courts, of the similarities and differences from currently established precedent on airborne surveillance activities and privacy. In addition to privacy considerations, operators should also be aware of how trespass, negligence, nuisance, insurance exposure, and other forms of liability may be recognized and diminished. As with manned aircraft activity, identification and understanding of the risks is vital to ensure appropriate mitigations are implemented (e.g., What happens if a UAS surveying property crashes into a house, or into a commercial power line?). This will require companies and other organizations to establish internal and external risk mitigation policies, procedures, practices, and oversight of commercial UAS operations mirroring those of commercial and private traditional aircraft operations.
Leveraging Government and Exemption-Driven Experiences
Prior to the publication of the Part 107 regulations, the FAA allowed UAS operations for non-recreational purposes through Certificates of Authorization, issued directly to public entities, or via the Section 333 Exemption process, for those wishing to engage in commercial activities. Much was learned from this period that both informed the development of the current small UAS regulations and helped to leverage and guide the commercialization of the UAS industry going forward.
Research organizations, including the National Science Foundation (NSF) Center of Unmanned Aircraft Systems and its constituent academic research universities, employed the waiver processes to advance development of technologies useful to the center’s government and industry partners. In many cases, these projects have focused on GEOINT-related applications and directly contributed to the development of industry capabilities. Additionally, the Alliance for System Safety of UAS through Research Excellence (ASSURE) serves as the FAA Center of Excellence for UAS research, and was formed to provide research capabilities to enable the rapid, safe, and efficient integration of UAS into the NAS while advancing commercialization. The ASSURE team is actively engaged in analyses and research that will not only benefit small UAS operations, but will also directly advance future implementations of larger and more capable UAS. Additionally, the FAA established six UAS test sites in December 2013 that have enabled stakeholders to collaboratively pursue research and development activities that would otherwise not be permitted.
These are only a few of the many public, private, and collaborative ongoing efforts advancing the state of UAS-related technologies and addressing operational requirements and applications. Much has also been learned from decades of successful UAS use supporting government applications overseas, including intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance. Those interested in pursuing the integration of UAS capabilities for civil and commercial activities, including civil GEOINT applications, should explore what has already been accomplished through these government and civilian activities. Organizations such as ASSURE, the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International (AUVSI), the Department of Defense (DoD), Sinclair College’s National UAS Training and Certification Center, the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems Association, and USGIF may be contacted via their websites to help address specific UAS goals.
Current State and Future Trends in Civil UAS Technology
As with any technology, UAS should be viewed as a tool that may be used as a standalone capability or integrated with other resources to accomplish goals. Data may be collected from ground assets, UAS, traditional manned aircraft, high-altitude assets, nano or micro satellites, and traditional satellite remote sensing resources. The appropriate application of UAS as an additional tool has the potential to both complement existing collection assets and to provide data types and quality that were otherwise not available or too cost prohibitive in the past.
Prior to any UAS implementation, data and information requirements, as well as specific mission applications, should be considered. Attention should be given to what available assets can accomplish the work, whether any information requirement gaps exist, the cost-effectiveness of a single or combined UAS solution, and how data may be processed and fused to create actionable information. A few examples of current civil or commercial UAS applications in the GEOINT domain include agriculture management, where spectral data is collected to address irrigation, soil variation, and pest and fungal issues; search and rescue, as demonstrated in the finding of a missing child in Harvey County, Kansas, last October; post-natural or man-made disaster relief assessment, such as those used in Ecuador by GlobalMedic in April 2016 to examine buildings and provide aerial mapping of earthquake affected areas;[12] environmental monitoring; natural resource surveys; traffic monitoring; and pattern of life analysis.
In each case, a determination of the requirements must be made and appropriate sensor types selected. As previously mentioned, sensor types are becoming more common in small UAS applications, and not only include still frame and video EO and IR systems, but also multi- and hyperspectral, acoustic, and chemical/biological sniffers. Some aircraft can also carry LiDAR and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensors, but due to the additional SWAP requirements for these systems, coupled with system costs, there has been limited deployment of most active sensing systems on commercial UAS. However, an increase in active sensors is expected as more companies continue to develop smaller, lightweight, and less expensive technologies.
The UAS types with which sensors are paired generally fall into the broad categories of fixed-wing, vertical takeoff and landing, or some form of transitional aircraft. The performance of even what could be considered hobbyist or consumer grade small UAS have dramatically increased in the past several years in nearly every sense, including flight duration, effective operational range, integrated sensor options, onboard memory, communication and data link bandwidth and range, and ease of maintenance, training, and use.
The development of civil and commercial UAS solutions to date has largely focused on single UAS operations, often operating independently from other ground or airborne assets. However, as technology continues to advance and regulations become more permissive, opportunities to integrate UAS with surface, other air, and even space-based assets will expand and become more easily achievable. One application that has already achieved some success is the integration of UAS with ground-based assets to support missions including search and rescue. One notable example is the integration of UAS with standard ground assets by Project Lifesaver International to assist in the search and rescue of individuals with cognitive disorders.[13] Although many aspects of UAS technology are already fairly capable, operators in any application space should ensure they adhere to all current regulations, including limiting a single operator to a single UAS.
UAS Training and Education
Often, some form of online, in-person, or blended training is necessary to ensure safety of operations and a complete understanding of system concepts of operations that would not be included in the FAA-required minimum training. Unlike manned aircraft that require system specific training and check rides, the FAA has made no such requirement for small UAS pilots. However, in addition to the regulatory necessity of obtaining the Remote Pilot Certificate, some UAS original equipment manufacturers have established their own system training standards that may be required or suggested when a client acquires one of their aircraft. This has most often been the case for UAS specifically designed for professional applications, often with GEOINT focuses such as mapping and infrastructure inspection, rather than basic, consumer grade, commercial-off-the-shelf systems.
Another capability transitioning from government to civil training spaces is the implementation of live, virtual, and constructive (LVC) technologies. As defined by the DoD modeling and simulation community, LVC simulations use real people who are involved with or operating real systems (live), real people operating simulated systems such as flight simulators (virtual), or simulated people operating simulated systems (constructive). The use of LVC as a pedagogical approach means more complex training scenarios can be accomplished cost-effectively with multiple sites participating remotely. As a recent example of how LVC can be used to support civil UAS training, in August 2016, Sinclair College’s National UAS Training and Certification Center collaborated with industry partner Simlat to design and execute a groundbreaking civil LVC exercise. The exercise linked the center’s mobile ground control station, live flight of a Sinclair UAS, and ground-based participants at the National Center for Medical Readiness in real-time with participants in Sinclair’s UAS Simulation Lab on the Dayton, Ohio, campus and Simlat’s headquarters in Israel. This capability demonstration highlighted advanced UAS applied research and training capabilities centered around a search and rescue scenario, including live participants, interactive virtual simulated capabilities, and constructive entities, showcasing the global reach now possible through strategic partnerships.
As the commercial UAS industry continues to rapidly mature, training and education options will have to meet new requirements as well. Remote and blended online and in-person learning can save time and establish baseline understanding, reducing the extent of expensive in-person sessions. Competency-based education (CBE) is also emerging as a way for those with prior experience or aptitude in a topic to advance quickly through curriculum while exhibiting mastery of required goals and objectives. Again, Sinclair College’s National UAS Training and Certification Center is leading explorations of this approach through a NSF grant awarded to create a CBE short-term technical certificate in aerial sensing data analytics. In addition to the program’s outreach to underserved populations, there is also a veteran’s recruitment component. The UAS industry, and advanced technology fields in general, must recognize the value of integrated network learning tools such as LVC, accelerated CBE programs, and flexible academic and career pathways to enable the effective and timely training of a workforce for jobs that didn’t even exist in the civil space a short time ago.
What’s Next?
The current FAA guidance under Part 107, combined with the cost reductions created by UAV and sensor miniaturization, and the availability of reliable UAS makes today the time for those in non-DoD, GEOINT-related domains to explore how the integration of UAS as an additional tool can support their goals and objectives. The role of UAS has expanded beyond intelligence and defense activities and now includes a broadening range of civil and commercial applications made possible through significant advances in technology, reduction in the cost of operations and data collection, regulatory guidance, and improved training and education networks.
Data collected by UAS have already been adopted in commercial GEOINT operations with the volume, quality, and overall percentage of data contributed only expected to increase in the coming years. A good example of UAS technology application is the agricultural company Monsanto, which in 2016 invested in Ag Image Analytics company Resson, in order to advance digital agriculture and data science using information collected by UAS and ground sensor systems. Monsanto’s goal is to use these technologies to give farmers information about the state of their fields and crops, and help them maximize yields, assess soil conditions, and assist with detecting diseases and viruses.[14] General Electric (GE) is another company investing in UAS and cloud technologies. Last year, GE invested in software company Airware in order to use its cloud technology to analyze UAS data collected over power lines in the United States. and abroad to identify threats to the infrastructure.[15] As active sensors such as LiDAR and SAR become more viable, additional data will add to both the capability of UAS as an asset and to the amount of data collected. Therefore, consideration must also be given to how new data will be transmitted, stored, processed, and fused with other sources to achieve the greatest potential benefit.
Stakeholders should expand collaborative efforts, seek to leverage past and ongoing work, and continue to integrate UAS capabilities into existing applications by interacting with organizations such as USGIF, AUVSI, ASSURE, and others. It’s also vital to enhance existing and develop new capabilities for UAS by investing in UAS-related STEM (science, technology, education, and math) programs — sharing experiences as teachers and mentors, sponsoring students in UAS-focused programs, and directing resources to UAS education and research and development efforts. Attention should also be given to the regulatory process, with academic and commercial entities with UAS experience participating in discussions with the FAA and other legal entities to help determine how larger and more capable UAS will be leveraged once permitted through future regulatory integration. This is truly an exciting time for the GEOINT discipline as it stands ready to fully leverage the extraordinary capabilities of civil and commercial UAS operations.
[1] Ben Popper, “Drone Maker DJI Nabs $75 Million in Funding at a $10 Billion Valuation.” The Verge, May 6, 2015, http://www.theverge.com/2015/5/6/8554429/dji-75-million-funding-investment-accel-10-billion-valuation.
[2] DJI Phantom 4, https://www.dji.com/phantom-4.
[3] FOLLOW ME — GPS and Visual Tracking, http://blog.parrot.com/2016/10/31/follow-now-drone-can-follow-adventures/.
[4] Patrick C. Miller, “Consumer Drone Sales Expected to Skyrocket in Coming Decade.” UAS Magazine, January 21, 2016, http://www.uasmagazine.com/articles/1403/consumer-drone-sales-expected-to-skyrocket-in-coming-decade.
[5] “Price Wars: Counting the Cost of Drones, Planes and Satellites.” https://droneapps.co/price-wars-the-cost-of-drones-planes-and-satellites/.
[6] IRIS RADAR SENSOR, Integrated Robotics, http://integrated-robotics.com/our-technology-solutions/uav-radar-research/.
[7] Bureau of Land Management Fire and Aviation UAS program, https://www.blm.gov/nifc/st/en/prog/fire/Aviation/uas.html.
[8] RITA UAS/UAV Unmanned Aircraft Operator Training Program, http://www.rescueinternational.org/.
[9] United States v. Causby, 328 U.S. 256 (1946) was a United States Supreme Court case related to ownership of airspace above private property.
[10] California v. Ciraolo, 476 U.S. 207 (1986), was a case decided by the United States Supreme Court, in which it ruled that warrantless aerial observation of a person’s backyard did not violate the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
[11] National Telecommunications and Information Administration Best Practices for UAS Privacy, Transparency, and Accountability, https://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/voluntary_best_practices_for_uas_privacy_transparency_and_accountability.pdf.
[12] GlobalMedic Ecuador Earthquake Response. GlobalMedic David McAntony Gibson Foundation, May 15, 2016, http://globalmedic.ca/programs/view/globalmedic-ecuador-earthquake-response-2016.
[13] Alex Davies, “Lockheed’s New Drone Will Help Rescuers Find Missing People.” Wired, April 28, 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/04/lockheeds-new-drone-will-help-rescuers-find-missing-people/.
[14] Louisa Burwood-Taylor, “Why Monsanto Invested in Ag Image Analytics Company Resson. AgFunder News, June 24, 2016, https://agfundernews.com/why-monsanto-invested-in-ag-image-analytics-company-resson6053.html.
[15] Jonathan Vanian, “GE is using drones to inspect the power grid.” Fortune, October 23, 2015. http://fortune.com/2015/10/23/ge-drones-power-grid/.
