A Critical Examination of Five Literary Giants
I. Introduction
Although Plato, in his Republic, rejects most forms of poetry on the account that poetry proves to be immoral and based on deception, Sir Philip Sidney rather agrees with Aristotle who recognizes both the potential and benefit it manifests. Whereas philosophical inquiries pursue truth by asking questions and coming to logical conclusions, poetry imitates characters and personalities in order to present the audience with a story typically with moral implications. His primary focus is on discovering truth through poetic elements in writing. Sidney’s theory also recognizes the powerful effect and outstanding poetry present in Shakespeare’s tragedy Othello because it teaches moral and practical lessons primarily concerning the theme of jealousy, and it serves to entertain the audience — characteristics that, for Sidney, are the defining features of poetry that shape an individual into a greater, more holistic, and knowledgeable person.
II. Sir Philip Sidney
To denote literature in genere, Sidney utilizes the phrase “poesy” in writing his Apology (or Defense of Poesy). Countering the claims that poesy is morally corrupting and a poor use of one’s time, he denotes that poetry (and other forms of literature) hold the power to move its audience to virtue through teaching. On this point does Sidney stand in accord with Plato: that “poesy therefore is an art of imitation…a speaking picture,” but carries the argument further to establish that poesy retains “this end, to teach and delight” (Sidney 553). Thus, poesy, through teaching and entertaining, elevates the mind and separates the conceptual faculties from the “body” to the “enjoying of [one’s] own divine essence” and by the “purifying of wit — this enriching of memory, enabling judgement, and enlarging of conceit — which commonly we call learning…to lead and draw us to as high a perfection as our degenerate souls, made worse by their clayey lodgings, can be capable of” (555). While the aim remains closely related, Aristotle mentioned catharsis as the objective of literature — to purge the individual of pity and fear through those very emotions (Harmon 77). The aim of teaching, therefore, is not fulfilled through gnosis [knowledge] only, but ultimately through praxis [action or application] (Sidney 562).
Revealed in the tragedy Gorboduc, Sidney demonstrates the functionality of the aforementioned criteria for “good poesy,” elaborating also that tragedies ought to bear witness to the “three unities” of time, place, and action. Gorboduc contains multiple different places as well as times, a feat that is performed with greater ease through poesy rather than a historical account (579). Sidney argues that there are generally three types of poesy, through which the argument stands that the tragedy Othello complements each of the three categories. The first (and “chief”) type of poesy is that which “imitate[s] the inconceivable excellencies of God,” the second is that which deals with philosophical matters, whereas the third teaches of that which “may be and should be” (553–554). Poesy, therefore, is a method that allows for transcendence — a tool that permits an individual to evaluate both themselves and the culture they exist in to make decisions that direct towards a higher good.
III. William Shakespeare
One reading of Othello is with a religious lens, for the character Othello is a Venetian moor: a black man who would have a Muslim background, but in the tragedy is a Christian. In terms of philosophy, Othello prods inquiries on the question of the nature and manifestations of evil, specifically in terms of Iago as the Nietzschean Übermensch. Deceiving not only Othello, but several other characters as well (such as Rodrigo, Emilia, Lodovico, and Gratiano), Iago acts as a puppeteer who oversees the entire play from beginning till the end when his scheme “fordoes [him] quite” (Shakespeare 879). Fulfilling the third kind of poesy, Othello also is a lecture on jealousy and the frightful vulnerability of trust, teaching not only through gnosis, but through then implicitly prompting the audience to reevaluate themselves and go forth with a more vigilant eye in praxis. Precisely this movement toward praxis is the “delightful” and beneficial aspect of a tragedy, that, because of their artistry and moral teaching, prompts the audience to reflect on their various values. Emilia, the wife of the villainous character Iago in Othello, quite explicitly engages with the audience to force their reexamination upon themselves to elucidate the theme of jealousy. The narrative artistically imitates life through accurate characters that deal with a complex situation that, in reality, is a very prominent issue. When conversing with Desdemona, Emilia explicates that jealousy is a “monster begot upon itself, born on itself” for people are “not ever jealous for the cause, but jealous for they’re jealous” (858). Shortly before their discourse, Iago also mentions that “trifles light as air are to the jealous confirmations strong as proofs of holy writ” as a declaration of his slyness, but also as an admonition to the audience (851). The tragedy quite literally carries the individual from the “dungeon of the body,” for jealousy has its roots in the physical recipient of one’s love (Sidney 555). Othello aims to reveal the faults of the body and, ultimately, of love to lead the audience toward cogitation and reflection.
The tragic play Othello arguably fulfills each of Sidney’s criteria for good poesy, as Shakespeare achieves to teach and delight, as well as purge pity and fear by means of catharsis to move people to praxis rather than simply retain learned knowledge. Literary works ought to provide valuable insights into various cultures and societies, but also into the individual to prompt introspection and reflection. The most delightful aspect of literature is not that it entertains, but that, from it, one may glean knowledge about the world around them. And what better way to gain insight into the complexities of a human being than to read works specifically concerned with man? Touching on a range of themes through three main perspectives — that of Satan, God, and man (through Adam and Eve) — Milton challenges political, moral, and theological conceptions, as well as writing on the very nature of mankind. It is the different perspectives throughout Milton’s Paradise Lost that fashion the epic poem into the great literary work it ultimately becomes.
IV. John Milton
Literary study remains a distinctive method of reaping knowledge because the works either explicitly or implicitly invite the reader to apply hypotheses to their own situation. Knowledge is derived from experience and rational deduction — and literature provides both the experience of other people as well as thought provoking insights that primarily focus on the faculty of reason. No other art proves as potent as literature in the occupation of gaining comprehension. Visual art, alike to music, cannot explicitly state and pose verbal questions, which is the method through which individuals come to understand the world. Theater is based upon a script, but targets both visual and aural faculties, which denies the ability to easily reread and think on a certain passage, as it must always move forward.
Recognizing the great potential literature possesses, Milton aims to discover certain aspects of human nature, expounding on themes of freedom, authority, revenge, and glory, along with other, more minor, subjects. In casting Satan as a revolutionary leader, and his stark portrayal of God as king along with the political and social significance of that portrayal, Milton creates tension as both seemingly strive for authority. The God depicted in Paradise Lost is an angry and distant God. He is described as a king in order to demonstrate that kingship on Earth, Heaven, and Hell. Rather than all-good, God proves authoritative and power hungry, demonstrating corruption in the very notion of kingship. Both God and Satan appear despotic and share not only their pursuit of revenge, but also their craving for power and glory. Satan is continuously seeking ways to assume authority over his followers and even over God, bent primarily on revenge against his Maker (Milton 1.107). Comparing the Almighty with Lucifer, as either a king or aspiring king respectively, raises questions on governmental authority and overall equality as well as moral issues of what good is.
Following the restoration of the monarchy by Charles II, Milton expressed his political views through Satan by fashioning Satan as a revolutionary leader worthy to be emulated in his attack on authority. Furthermore, rather than portrayed as a brutal and hideous creature, Satan is eloquent and admirable in his struggle, gifting hope and motivation to the fallen angels and dominions. For Satan declares that “all is not lost” and implants the idea that they may “try what may be yet regained in Heav’n” (Milton 1.106; 1.269–270). His rebellion of God thrusts him into a leadership position that struggles for kingship with the Father. He becomes a champion of freedom for both the angels and mankind, by revealing a subjection without God. Milton explicitly addresses questions of freedom and free will, elucidating the human nature of a self-preservation instinct which produces in man a desire to be greater and ultimately God-like. Along with the notion of a power-hungry individual, he reveals that sinful creatures will always deflect their shortcomings onto others. Just as Satan blamed God for his own prideful heart, Adam and Eve eventually blame Satan for deceiving them into disobedience. However, in both cases the responsibility hangs on those who committed the sin, for each was “sufficient to have stood, though free to fall” (Milton 3.98–99).
Along with political and moral insights into the individual, Milton also guides the reader to knowledge of human nature. He argues that people are reasonable creatures, made with a free will to choose and reason for themselves. Before the Fall, Adam and Eve reason about work and whether God made them to work or “not to irksome toil, but to delight He made [them], and delight to reason joined” (Milton 9.242–243). When Eve is tempted by the serpent to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, she reasons first with the snake and then on her own to justify her actions. Even after the Fall, Adam and Eve reason concerning God’s curse on them to declare that suicide is no viable option, but that they must continue to persist so that a subsequent saviour may arise.
In writing from multiple perspectives, Milton creates an environment that prompts the reader to reflect on their own nature and the nature of the society surrounding them. Only through the perspectives of three different characters does Milton reveal aspects of freedom, authority, and a thirst for power, and challenges the audience to introspection and self-reflection. Only through experience followed by introspection and application is wisdom gained and knowledge acquired, a phenomenon that literature successfully induces. As language is the basis of human thought, literature has the potential to provide knowledge not only in a literary field, but of philosophy, theology, morality, and other fields as well to improve and advance the individual.
V. James Boswell
What remains most important, whether subjective or objective, is the truth. Both Boswell and Equiano attempt to establish the truth of their narratives, both in different ways and for contrasting ends. Equiano pens his autobiography to center around the conditions of slavery (specifically pointing out the mistreatment of slaves in the traffic) to fulfill his political purpose of altering the public opinion that generally approved of the slave trade. Boswell, in his Life of Johnson, intends to present a more accurate account of Samuel Johnson than other contemporary biographers. His objective is to portray Johnson in all his weaknesses, shortcomings, strengths, and genius and thus paint an accurate portrait of who he really was. To both writers, location played a key role in developing their respective arguments; no comparison is drawn between the two, however: a thorough analysis of the techniques of persuasion each author utilizes is the abstract of the paper beginning with Boswell.
Boswell’s biography of Samuel Johnson proved a revolutionary literary success because of the novel technique he applied. His focus remained not on Johnson’s works and general facts (although both were included) such as was the focus of contemporary biographers shortly after Johnson’s death, but he fervently pointed out his personality, mannerisms, and opinions during his life. Having spent a significant portion of his time together with the renowned literary figure, Boswell avidly wrote down Johnson’s words with a duty bordering on obsession, as Johnson himself pointed out by mentioning that he “[has] but two topicks, [him]self and me. I am sick of both” (Boswell 216). He remains quick to highlight defects or imperfections in both Johnson’s appearance, mannerisms, and argumentation. Both he and Johnson often disagreed on certain matters such as religion: in one instance, Boswell inquired as to whether Johnson was an enemy of the Catholic religion, to which Johnson replied: “no more … than to the Presbyterian religion” (148).
However, Boswell also frequently detailed Johnson’s strengths such as his memory (38) and “overall superiority” (41) in terms of general knowledge, knowledge of literature, and writing. Thrusting Johnson not in a purely heroic light, but identifying his shortcomings alongside his success, Boswell creates a more believable, well-rounded, and human character. When pointing out both flaws and great strengths, Boswell directly emphasizes where he received the source of information from and that he did not omit any instances. The source of information he accrued from a plethora of people, such as Johnson’s friends, family, acquaintances, as well as including various pieces of correspondence, Johnson’s books, articles, and personal experiences with him. Through explicitly utilizing such anecdotes, Boswell projects an arguably truer account of Johnson’s life than other biographers in his time.
Following Johnson to various places, Boswell often provoked conversation on an array of topics and people. Moving to physical locations such as the Mitre-tavern, the “temple stairs,” and traveling by boat through the river demonstrates both a physical and intellectual journey for the two. When Boswell speaks of Johnson within his home, Johnson is more concerned with his own work and life as he is talking of personal matters and in the process of writing the Dictionary (96, 98). However, when they leave the “chambers” and move around town, the focus shifts from Johnson to Johnson’s perspective on other people and topics. Through the interaction between Johnson and his respective homes, Boswell demonstrates that Fleet Street was a place of business and professionalism. The Inner Temple Lane presents the opposite (when Boswell first meets Johnson here, he describes him as brutish and uncouth), and Johnson’s Court, which proves a romantic dwelling place where Mrs. Williams lives and where he lives with his wife. Johnson often walks around the town (even at two in the morning (98)) and seems to ask for conversations even at his own home as though he is in desperate need of company.
Johnson’s constant physical movement parallels with his intellectual movement because he cannot stay in one place and always seeks conversation. The locations and people they meet along the way also paint the narrative as more realistic and historical, rather than simply a dull list of occurrences. Along with the locations, Boswell telescopes his and Johnson’s conversations to place similar topics under the same time frame. Boswell often asks difficult questions on religion, culture, and other contemporary figures, but grouping similar discussions more clearly demonstrates a consistent character of Johnson and to project his character successfully and believably to the public.
VI. Olaudah Equiano
In writing The Interesting Narrative, Olaudah Equiano sought out to alter public opinion and project himself as believable as he was greatly concerned with the slave trade in Britain. His main purpose proved to “excite…a sense of compassion for the miseries which the Slave-Trade has entailed on [his] unfortunate countrymen” and the work succeeded by offering a vivid autobiography depicting the horrors of the slave trade (Equiano 7). Equiano attempts to persuade his audience that his account remains a work of truth by repeatedly mentioning his humility that he is no significant figure and that he does not intend for literary reputation or fame as a result of his autobiography. He also expounds upon his many “friends” before the work begins in the form of a list of subscribers and letters to them to remind the reader of the significant people supporting Equiano and his cause.
In terms of content, Equiano describes the humanity of the people in Guinea, that food is “usually cooked in a pan,” they use spices such as pepper, and they “always wash [their] hands” (35). The people are strongly compared to Jews on their quest to discover the Land of Promise and the patriarchs in their pastoral state as described in Genesis. However, strongest of these comparisons is the one likened to the Englishmen, where Equiano reminds the European that “his ancestors were once, like the Africans, uncivilized, and even barbarous,” rhetorically asking whether they should be enslaved to which he answers “no” (45). Through depicting different people demonstrating various degrees of hospitality to Equiano and other slaves, he reiterates his point that he is not attempting to abolish slavery, but only the slave trade. He willingly works aboard a ship because the merchant promised free passage and “shewed a great deal of hospitality and friendship” (157). However, he also mentions that the slave traffic “spreads like a pestilence…violates that first natural right of mankind, equality and independence, and gives one man a dominion over his fellows which God could never intend” (111). With his audience and social context in mind, he criticizes the cruel aspects of the slave trade, but supports slavery (under the umbrella of kindness).
Literature in the eighteenth-century focused mainly on theology and travel. The Interesting Narrative, in some ways, is a providential narrative in which Equiano moves from slavery to freedom, from “pagan” to Christian, all the while forming his character throughout his life. Equiano also praises England by further demonstrating his spiritual journey: he praises God when thinking of England and bids farewell to “angry howling dashing surfs” as well as other “oppressions” and uncivilized or barbarian modes of living. In short, the narrative connects the places he visits with his spiritual journey. Following the moral and psychological growth of Equiano, the narrative becomes a Bildungsroman marking the growth of his person. Catering the style of his narrative to the audience of the eighteenth century gives Equiano more voracity through the evident growth, excessive details such as various foods eaten by locals, items found in a market, modes of hunting, gathering, clothing, and the like.
Equiano’s memory of these details seems extraordinary, but he explicitly defines that which he can or cannot remember: when describing currency, for example, he mentions that money is of little use, although coins do exist, yet he does not “remember either their value or denomination” (37). Admitting to his shortcomings provides the understanding that wherever the author does not explicate his lack of memory, the accounts are to be believed and accurate. Contrary to London, Montserrat proves a place that Equiano keeps returning to not for the purpose of demonstrating his character development, but for political ends. He becomes witness to various cruelties toward other men and calls them brethren and “unhappy fellow slaves” (104). By elucidating the horrendous acts of white masters toward slaves and announcing that the slaves are his peers, he elevates the status of the slave to a knowledgeable person (and most importantly human and similar to the people in England in most manners). This has the effect of procuring empathy towards the slaves and casting them in a more humane light.
By creating convincingly authentic protagonists and emphasizing their humanity, the authors cater to the specific tastes of eighteenth-century readers and craft a careful narrative that demonstrates the personal dispositions of each character. Boswell writes his biography of Johnson to clearly and honestly demonstrate Johnson’s temperament, both as an avid reader and writer, but also as a melancholic and troubled mind. On the other hand, Equiano portrays himself in his autobiography not as a bold hero, but as a humble man traveling through the slave trade. His end is not an honest depiction of himself, but a political attempt to stop the slave trade (but note, not to stop slavery). Both writers elucidate their voracity by humbly admitting their faults and lack of memory and utilizing locations as a means to project ideas and construct a better view of their characters. And the writers have achieved their respective ends with relative success. Yet both The Life of Johnson and The Interesting Narratives have come under scrutiny and the honesty and integrity of both authors is doubted. This begs the question: can people ever be truly honest with themselves and with others? Can writers ever accurately paint the whole picture of a person? Or is man much too complex to be condensed merely into words?
VII. Conclusion
Moral implications seem almost inseparable from literary endeavors. All five literary giants have, in some ways, both discovered human nature, as well as defined moral boundaries within their respective cultures. While Shakespeare’s tragedy Othello because it teaches moral and practical lessons primarily concerning the theme of jealousy, Milton covers the element of pride and a thirst for power. Whereas Boswell focuses on Johnson’s literary genius, Equiano depicts himself both humble and honest. Sidney elucidates that literature ought to “teach and delight” (Sidney 553). Through these writers, it becomes evident that human nature is conflicting, hypocritical, and multifaceted: individuals are both good and evil, sound and insane, proud and humble at once. They are both free and enslaved — to themselves, as well as to the world around them. They thrive in the past and the future, but rarely in the present moment. Each individual is caught between two extremes — but it is in this very medium, where Aristotle discovered virtue lies.
Works Cited
Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings. The Penguin Group, 2003.
Harmon, William. A Handbook to Literature. Pearson, 2010.
James, Boswell. The Life of Samuel Johnson. Penguin Classics, 1979.
Milton, John. Paradise Lost. W. W. Norton. 2020.
Shakespeare, William. Othello. Simon & Schuster. 1993.
Sidney, Sir Philip. “Defense of Poesy.” The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Edited by Stephen Greenblatt, 10th ed., D, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, New York, 2018.
