In Danger: Actions Against Terrorism
World Heritage Sites, as the name suggests, are found all over the world in 33 different countries. Of these, the Middle Eastern countries of Afghanistan, Iraq, Syrian Arab Republic, and Yemen, have sites that are listed as In Danger (UNESCO). The List of World Heritage Sites In Danger can be registered with 14 different factors, such as Buildings and Development, Pollution, Biological resource use, Physical resource extraction, Social/cultural uses of heritage, and Other human activities (UNESCO). In the Middle East, 18 sites have been placed on the In Danger List, all related to Other Human Activities, specifically due to War and Terrorism (UNESCO). The Gulf Wars of 1990s and early 2000s, and the subsequent civil wars in Syria and the broader Middle East region has led to an incredibly unstable environment. This has led to militant extremist factions such as Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIL), Al-Qaeda, and the Taliban to cause irreversible damage to the cultural sites UNESCO has deemed as having outstanding universal value (Buffenstein 2018).
Cultural Genocide: Terrorists Groups
The threatened sites in Iraq, Syria, and Iran are essential sites that lie at the heart of universal heritage. A tactic of cultural genocide involves not only the harm of cities and taking of human life, but the systematic destruction of culture (Smith 2015). Cultural genocide refers to attacks on ethnic or religious groups, such as its language, traditional practices, cultural objects, academics, and intellectual thought (Smith 2015). The destruction and looting of culture has been occurring since Greek and Roman times, and more recognizably with Nazi destruction and looting of any art that was deemed degenerate. Although we often conflate terrorism and war with attacking people, terrorist groups such as the ISIL, the Taliban, and Al Qaeda have begun cultural genocide, targeting cultural objects and sacred spaces.
Thoughts on Syria
This has led to the destruction and permanent loss of many World Heritage Sites, and the inability to access these sites due to being trapped within active warzones. Due to lack of access, the sites within Iraq have had mixed, often intentionally misleading reports on the state of the WHS, such as the false rumors that Hatra had been destroyed (UNESCO). All six of the World Heritage Sites in Syria are currently placed on the World Heritage In Danger List since 2013. ISIL targets cultural sites as Allah has commanded them to eradicate any mention of non-Muslim culture (Kila 2013). Due to the Syrian Civil War and actions by ISIL, many of these World Heritage Sites have been irreparably destroyed.
Site of Palmyra
The Site Of Palmyra was one of the most important cultural centers of the ancient world, being a cross roads of trade routes of many civilizations of the ancient world, such as Greece, Rome Persia, India, and China (UNESCO). The site was inscribed as a World Heritage Site (WHS) in 1980 through criteria (i) (ii) and (iv) and placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2013 (UNESCO).The destruction of the WHS Palmyra has been ongoing and devastating. Palmyra has suffered irreparable damage due to bombings since its twice ISIL occupation from May 2015 to March 2016, and then was occupied again from December 2016 to March 2017. ISIL destroyed the Palmyra Museum, and bombed the Temples of Bel and Baalshamin, and executed the head of the museums antiquities Khaled al-Asaad when he refused to give locations of objects (Onyanga-Omara 2017). Bombs planted around the city destroyed the Monumental Arch and the remains of the Roman Tetraplion (Onyanga-Omara 2017).
The rapid destruction of the art and architecture of Palmyra, which stands at the crossroads of several civilizations, threatens to erase the history and diversity of Syrian identity.
Ancient City of Aleppo
Inscribed as a WHS in 1986 under the (iii) and (iv) criteria and placed on the WHS Danger List in 2013 (UNESCO). The Ancient City of Aleppo was once a crossroad of several trade routes in the 2nd millennium and a key city in the Silk Road, having a multi-cultural influence on architecture, economy, and culture of all who visited (UNESCO).
However, due to the armed conflict of the Syrian Civil War, and the subsequent four-year Battle of Aleppo, the unrelenting bombings have taken a toll on one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in the world. A report commissioned by the Directorate General of Antiquites and Museums (DGAM) was taken in April 2015 and found that severe damage occurred over 2014 and 2015 at the Great Umayyad Mosque, Mosque al-Utrush, the Citadel, and more due primarily to the armed conflict (UNESCO).
In 2016, another report was published that large portions of the city had been destroyed, but unfortunately access was not possible. While the World Heritage Centre has published these damage assessment reports, but any future actions are currently delayed due to lack of access (UNESCO).
Thoughts On What Is Being Done
Throughout the onslaught of destruction, many organizations have devised ways to ensure the preservation of these sites, working around lack of access through innovative technological means. Below are several examples of how different stakeholders have sought to keep, preserve, and share these places of outstanding universal value.
CIPA
The Comité International de la Photogrammétrie Architecturale (CIPA) is a joint organization of ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites) and ISPRS (International Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing) is contributing with technical knowledge to save the heritage of Syria (Silver 2016). The goal of CIPA is to create an open access database to compile data of Syria before the civil war broke out. By doing this, they hope to support the protection and preservation of the environment, sites, monuments, and artifacts and the memory of the cultural region that has been crucial for human civilization. Due to the inaccessibility due to the conflict zone, this open access database will provide data to institutions, organizations, individuals, and other stakeholders to share information about the cultural heritage of Syria before its damage and destruction.
The goal of the CIPA database is to connect the current available data that CIPA has that will allow future actions to be designed (Silver 2016). The database structure will allow searchable data, such as images, historical records, archaeological studies, 2D and 3D models to be useful to all. Overall, this data collection supports the protection, preservation, and future restoration or reconstruction strategies that could occur in the future.
Satellite Imagery
Another technological use to work around the inaccessibility of these sites is that of satellite imagery. A Collaboration with American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR) and US Department of State uses high resolution satellite imagery to assess and monitor damage of archaeological sites in Syria (Casana 2017). As of 2017, 5,000 sites have been evaluated. This project not only allows us to have results about the cultural heritage crisis in Syria, but also ways to develop mitigation strategies when human presence at these sites are incredibly dangerous. This remote sensing satellite imagery can be used to produce site based studies to verify damage, or cover larger regions. Ultimately, this project provided critical information for the urgent need to evaluate the severity and extent of damage and looting to Syrian sites due to war and terrorist actions (Casana 2017).
3D Light Projections- Buddhas of Bamiyan
The Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley in Afghanistan housed 6th-7th century rock cut Buddha sculptures, and were the largest known in the world, measuring over 175 feet in height (Khan Academy). The Buddhas were carved directly into the side of the cliff in high relief. The two monumental structures were considered the world’s greatest ancient monuments and had importance to the Buddhist faith and the Bamiyan Valley and reflected the international importance of the valley and the variety of cultures that gathered at the site. However, in 2001, Mullah Omar ordered Taliban forces to demolish these two Bamiyan Buddhas as part of the campaign to destroy and remove all non-Islamic art from Afghanistan. After the explosives were detonated, all that remained was the empty alcove where the grand Buddhas once stood.
The destruction of these Buddhas was a part of the Taliban’s extremist thought. A combination of removing anything that did not promote Islam and iconoclastic campaign destroying idols or depictions of faces (Khan Academy).
Reconstruction of these statues have been at the heart of many debates, and an agreement was hard pressed. While the site was listed as In Danger, UNESCO did not advocate for rebuilding, as the site was almost destroyed, and ran the risk of being destroyed once again in such a highly violate area. After fourteen years, in 2015, the empty cavities where the statues once proudly stood were filled by 3D laser light projections. This technology was donated by a Chinese couple, Jason Yu and Liyan Hu with UNESCO and the Afghan Government, the Buddhas were able to be within the cliff sides once again (Delman 2015). Although this projection was fleeting, only being shown for one night, it serves as an example of what digital technology and 3D imagery can provide to these sites in terms of reconstruction and preservation.
Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Cultural Heritage Project
Finally, throughout technology working with preservation, there is still classic restoration happening in Syria. In May 2015, when ISIL forces captured Palmyra, the Lion of Al-lat suffered extensive damage. This was an international symbol of Palmyra, and no other kind of statue existed. Funded by the European Union, the Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Culture Heritage Project worked to restore the extensive damage at the Museum of Palmyra (UNESCO).
While the heritage at Syria remains at a high risk, the fragments of the Lion of Al-lat were removed and taken to the Damascus. This restoration is aimed to be only one of many. The restoration of this statue marks a pivotal point in caring and safeguarding Syrian heritage during this volatile time, both symbolically and literally.
Conclusion
Many Middle Eastern World Heritage Sites are listed as In Danger. The losses are of a great magnitude, but many organizations are working to preserve these sites. This is happening through a combination of classic restoration techniques and cutting edge technology. With the continued efforts of these organizations, as well as information about the ongoing cultural heritage crisis, the ongoing destruction of these sites can be mitigated and reversed.
References
“Bamiyan Buddhas.” Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/west-and-central-asia/a/bamiyan-buddhas.
Barnard, Anne. “ISIS Speeds Up Destruction of Antiquities in Syria.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 25 Aug. 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/08/25/world/isis-accelerates-destruction-of-antiquities-in-syria.html.
Buffenstein, Alyssa. “A Monumental Loss: Here Are the Most Significant Cultural Heritage Sites Destroyed by ISIS.” Artnet News, Artnet News, 30 Jan. 2018, news.artnet.com/art-world/isis-cultural-heritage-sites-destroyed-950060.
Casana, Jesse, and Elise Jakoby Laugier. “Satellite Imagery-based Monitoring of Archaeological Site Damage in the Syrian Civil War.” Plos One12, no. 11 (2017). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0188589.
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Conservation Completed on Lion of Al-Lāt Statue from Ancient City of Palmyra, Damaged by ISIL.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, whc.unesco.org/en/news/1727/.
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “Emergency Plan to Safeguard Iraq’s Cultural Heritage.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, whc.unesco.org/en/news/1187/.
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “List of World Heritage in Danger.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre — List of World Heritage in Danger, whc.unesco.org/en/danger/.
Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. “The Iraqi Site of Hatra Added to the List of World Heritage in Danger.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, whc.unesco.org/en/news/1309/.
Delman, Edward. “Afghanistan’s Buddhas Rise Again.” The Atlantic. June 10, 2015. Accessed May 08, 2018. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/06/3d-buddhas-afghanistan/395576/.
Jazeera, Al. “ISIL Pulls Back from Palmyra.” Syria News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 2 Mar. 2017, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/03/isil-pulls-syria-palmyra-170302072902496.html.
Joris D. Kila. “Inactive, Reactive, or Pro-Active?: Cultural Property Crimes in the Context of Contemporary Armed Conflicts.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 1, no. 4 (2013): 319–42. doi:10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.1.4.0319.
Onyanga-Omara, Jane. “Islamic State Destroys More Ancient Monuments in Palmyra.” USA Today, Gannett Satellite Information Network, 20 Jan. 2017, www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/01/20/syria-isil-destroys-part-roman-theater-palmyra/96822822/.
“Security Council Hears Calls for ‘All of UN’ Approach to Stop Destruction, Smuggling of Cultural Heritage | UN News.” United Nations, United Nations, news.un.org/en/story/2017/11/637901-security-council-hears-calls-all-un-approach-stop-destruction-smuggling.
Silver, Minna, Fulvio Rinaudo, Emanuele Morezzi, Francesca Quenda, and Maria Laura Moretti. “The Cipa Database For Saving The Heritage Of Syria.” ISPRS — International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information SciencesXLI-B5 (2016): 953–60. doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-xli-b5–953–2016.
Smith, Claire, Heather Burke, Cherrie De Leiuen, and Gary Jackson. “The Islamic State’s Symbolic War: Daeshs Socially Mediated Terrorism as a Threat to Cultural Heritage.” Journal of Social Archaeology16, no. 2 (2015): 164–88. doi:10.1177/1469605315617048.
