The Age of Isolation: Histories of Social Isolation and Loneliness
Assignment #3: Mapping Evolution of Isolation of Elderly
Carnegie Mellon, Transition Design Seminar 2023
Team Holarchy : Jasmin Palermo, Gabriela Arias, Gladys Mercier, Misari Patel, Saurin Nanavati
Until a century ago, most seniors in the US lived with their families and within small communities — now in the aftermath of the Covid-19 Pandemic and associated social distancing protocols, some research estimates up to 40% of seniors (aged 60+) are living alone. We are witnessing the transition from a minority of senior people becoming isolated to the majority of people, regardless of age, being isolated.
According to the National Health and Aging Trends Study report, released in early 2020 just before the COVID-19 outbreak, 28% of older adults aged 65+ in the US (9 million) were already socially isolated at that time (MacLeod S, et al. 2021). Two years later, we find ourselves in a social recession and if we do not intentionally build socially connected communities we may establish isolation as the social norm.
However, we can’t tackle social isolation and loneliness of seniors without understanding the histories of these two siblings. So how did we get here?
Social Isolation manifests differently depending on context, however there are instincts, inventions, events, cultural conditions (some may say values) that have contributed to this phenomenon.
The History of Loneliness and Social Isolation can be seen through the lenses of biology and sociology. John Cacioppo, at the Center for Cognitive and Social Neuroscience, identifies loneliness as a state of hypervigilance whose origins lie among our primate ancestors and in our own hunter-gatherer past. In the new book “Together: The Healing Power of Human Connection in a Sometimes Lonely World” (Harper Wave), Murthy explains how Cacioppo’s evolutionary theory of loneliness has been tested by anthropologists at the University of Oxford, who have traced its origins back fifty-two million years, to the very first primates.
Primates need to belong to an intimate social group, a family or a band, in order to survive. Separated from the group triggers a fight-or-flight response. Cacioppo argued that your body understands being alone, or being with strangers, as an emergency. “Over millennia, this hypervigilance in response to isolation became embedded in our nervous system to produce the anxiety we associate with loneliness.” Social connectedness is basically good for our health and our feelings of loneliness tell us we have a physical need for human contact.
In “A Biography of Loneliness: The History of an Emotion” (Oxford), the British historian Fay Bound Alberti defines loneliness as “a conscious, cognitive feeling of estrangement or social separation from meaningful others.” Modern loneliness, in Alberti’s view, is the child of capitalism and secularism. “Many of the divisions and hierarchies that have developed since the eighteenth century — between self and world, individual and community, public and private — have been naturalized through the politics and philosophy of individualism,” she writes..
The BBC Loneliness Experiment provided a unique opportunity to examine differences in the experience of loneliness across cultures, age, and gender, and the interaction between these factors. Findings showed that loneliness increased with individualism, decreased with age, and was greater in men than in women. Research indicated that people that identified with individualism reported the highest levels of loneliness, by contrast with those identifying with collectivism (Heu, et al. 2019).
Utilizing the STEEP (Social, Technology, Economic, Environmental, Political) framework to better understand system dynamics, we can begin to unpack how we ended up in an epidemic of social isolation and loneliness. The history of Pittsburgh provides a unique lens through which we can map the emergence of this phenomenon.
Social
Before the twentieth century, according to the best longitudinal demographic studies, about five per cent of all households (or about one percent of the world population) consisted of just one person. That figure began rising around 1910, driven by urbanization, the decline of live-in servants, a declining birth rate, and the replacement of the traditional, multigenerational family with the nuclear family. By the time David Riesman published “The Lonely Crowd,” in 1950, nine per cent of all households consisted of a single person (Lepore, 2020).
Immigration and internal migration also further fueling individualist principles. After the Civil War in the mid-1800s, European immigration to the US greatly increased, as this country was perceived to be the land of economic opportunity. Historically, older immigrants are vulnerable to social isolation and loneliness due to language barriers, cultural differences, discrimination, and evolving familial caregiving dynamics. Even though studies have hypothesized the maladjustment of immigrants, researchers have found that an individual’s ethnic identity may be beneficial to one’s development. First generations report less depression, less anxiety, and greater positive well-being than second generations who were born in the United States, which may be associated with the way first generations maintain a strong connection to their native culture (Farver, Bakhtawar, & Narang, 2002; Harker, 2001).
Second generation Americans, immigrants have frequent direct encounters with their native culture from which they can draw meaning from during times of stress or when experiencing discrimination (Schwartz & Montgomery, 2002). Second generations are attempting to work out two (or more) cultures into their ethnic identity from a young age (Farver, Bakhtawar, & Narang, 2002; Schwartz & Montgomery, 2002; Zhou, 1997). Aspects of their ethnic identity are being challenged and maintained in order to integrate both one’s native culture and the host culture. They may feel a conflict between their loyalty to their ethnic ideals and the desire to explore their American identities. In terms of their experiences of loneliness (Sharma, 2012), second generations may feel as though they are the outsider in that they may lose the approval of either their American peers for adhering to the cultural norms of their parents, or their ethnic counterparts for adopting American customs. One may cope with feeling isolated by assimilating more to the host culture (Cheryan & Monin, 2005; Farver, Narang, & Bhada, 2002).
Third generation Americans are likely to endorse the individualistic conventions of the U.S., which may or may not show higher rates of loneliness. Since their roots are identified with an individualistic culture, they may not feel a sense of isolation from their peers as it is a norm. For them, greater participation in American culture may yield less loneliness among third generation Americans since they are identifying with the values of the host culture.
Technology
Beginning in the nineteen-sixties, the percentage of single-person households grew at a much steeper rate, driven by a high divorce rate, an increased percentage of women in the workforce, a falling birth rate, and longer life spans over all — seniors began to reside alone, with women typically outliving their husbands. The telephone’s widespread adoption, in the nineteen-fifties, helped make living alone possible. Television, the internet, and social media all followed, each innovation promising us more connectivity in an increasingly disconnected world. Some people say that the success of social media was a product of an epidemic of loneliness; some people say it was a contributor to it; some people say it’s the only remedy for it (Lepore, 2020).
Economic
Colonialism and capitalism played a big role in the modern American identity. By the 18th century, the individualistic ethos of the early explorers had evolved into a fully fledged culture of its own (fee.org, 2022). The chief characteristic that we should remember is the speed of social change based on exploitation of labor and natural resources — the opportunities for self-advancement through economic development provided opportunities for social mobility for recent immigrants (Campbell, 1963). The American Revolution and Declaration of Independence, are the start of our individualism with early industrialists as the grandfathers of modern day capitalism.
Pittsburg is the “Steel City” — it was put on the map by one of the greatest industrialists of the 20th century. Andrew Carnegie’s relentless efforts to drive down costs and undersell the competition made his steel mills the most modern in the world, the models for the entire industry. By 1900, Carnegie’s steel was cheap. Suddenly bridges and skyscrapers were not only feasible but affordable, too. Steel fed national growth, accelerating the already booming industrial sector. Steel meant more jobs, national prestige, and a higher quality of life for many. For Carnegie’s workers, however, cheap steel meant lower wages, less job security, and the end of creative labor. The life of a 19th-century steel worker was grueling. Twelve-hour shifts, seven days a week. Carnegie gave his workers a single holiday-the Fourth of July; for the rest of the year they worked like draft animals. “Hard! I guess it’s hard,” said a laborer at the Homestead mill. “I lost forty pounds the first three months I came into this business. It sweats the life out of a man. I often drink two buckets of water during twelve hours; the sweat drips through my sleeves, and runs down my legs and fills my shoes.” (PBS.org: The Steel Business).
During the 1920s, the United States was utilizing Pittsburgh’s steel to build more and more machines. Unchecked capitalism continued to incentivize ambitious entrepreneurs to look for new ways to increase productivity. One of the most significant inventions to come out of that time was Henry Ford’s assembly line. The assembly line changed the way people worked and lived, accelerating the shift from rural areas to cities, and increasing the number of people doing repetitive, low-skilled jobs.
The specialization of the assembly line meant that Ford no longer had to use craftsmen and could instead hire low-skill workers and teach them a few simple steps. But the monotonous work led to high turnover, leading Ford to double his minimum wage in order to keep his line humming. The $5 day was eventually followed by the five-day work week, which meant Ford workers had both the money to buy his cars and the leisure time to use them (Agence France-Presse, 2013).
In 1926, Henry Ford popularized the 40-hour work week after he discovered through his research that working more yielded only a small increase in productivity that lasted a short period of time.
Another byproduct of capitalism and individualism is our pursuit of privacy and private property. A large part of the American dream is owning a home and a car, with many people sacrificing relationships for assets. However when buying our privacy we are also purchasing our solitude. Now more people are aging in place and generally living longer, however, due to various reasons such as divorce, death of a spouse, geographic separation from family members, or health concerns they are isolated in empty homes.
Environmental
The research, published in the Scientific Reports journal, collected data from urban citizens across the world using the Urban Mind research app. People were prompted at three random times a day for a fortnight, during waking hours, to answer simple questions on loneliness, overcrowding, social inclusion and contact with nature.
The research found that feelings of overcrowding increased loneliness by an average of 39%. But when people were able to see trees or the sky, or hear birds, feelings of loneliness fell by 28%. Feelings of social inclusion also cut loneliness by 21%, and when these feelings coincided with contact with nature the beneficial effect was boosted by a further 18%. The findings pointed to interventions to reduce loneliness, the researchers said: “Specific measures that increase social inclusion and contact with nature should be implemented, especially in densely populated cities.”
“Familiarity with environments was not measured, but is likely to be at play as people tend to visit the same natural environments. Such familiarity has been linked with feeling more connected to a place, with possible mental health benefits.”
Urbanization — the shift from rural to urban — is associated with mental health issues due to increased stressors and reduced social support. Evidence suggests “the sheer scale of urban life” contributes greatly to feelings of isolation. Furthermore, though diversity is positive, the vast range of lifestyles and cultures in cities leads to a heterogeneity that raises the chances of social isolation compared to villages. Indeed, urban dwellers report having the desire for more neighborly contacts, but find it “difficult to realize such contacts in the city.” Experiences of social isolation in cities are robust, and urban planning has largely contributed to the problem. Unfortunately, “many modern cities have been designed around cars, at the expense of the parks, public plazas and common spaces where people naturally congregate (Harries).
Additionally, as we are learning through global crises such as the Covid-19 pandemic, human health is connected to the health of animals and the health of the ecosystems that we share with them (OneHealth. 2023).
Political
In the aftermath of the World Wars, particularly WW2, niche ideas began to take form about employment. Social expectations began to change and ultimately led to a wave of reform. More awareness was being spread of unequal employment situations. Soon enough these ideas of reform became mainstream, which is when legal action took place to protect against ageism in the workforce. In the mid to late 1900s, the US government established several acts which abolished mandatory retirement and established income security for the elderly.
Although the effectiveness of these programs remains in question, there is no doubt that the awareness these acts sparked opened up empathy toward the elderly experiencing isolation. In the modern day, however, we can examine how gentrification and the unavailability of job opportunities can lead to internal migration, which divides families and communities and makes strong interpersonal connections feel more fleeting. The lack of distribution of resources causes a plethora of micro-immigration throughout the country, fueling individualism and isolation.
On June 25, 1938, Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act, which limited the workweek to 44 hours. On June 26, 1940, Congress amended the Fair Labor Standards Act, limiting the workweek to 40 hours. October 24, 1940: The Fair Labor Standards Act went into effect.
The Social Security Act was signed by FDR on August 14, 1935. Taxes were collected for the first time in January 1937 and the first one-time, lump-sum payments were made that same month. Regular ongoing monthly benefits started in January 1940.
On July 30, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Medicare and Medicaid Act, also known as the Social Security Amendments of 1965, into law. It established Medicare, a health insurance program for the elderly, and Medicaid, a health insurance program for people with limited income. In 1965, Congress also passed the Older Americans Act (OAA) in response to concern by policymakers about a lack of community social services for older persons. The original legislation established authority for grants to states for community planning and social services, research and development projects, and personnel training in the field of aging. The law also established the Administration on Aging (AoA) to administer the newly created grant programs and to serve as the federal focal point on matters concerning older persons. Currently the OAA is considered to be a major vehicle for the organization and delivery of social and nutrition services to this group and their caregivers. It authorizes a wide array of service programs through a national network of 56 state agencies on aging, 618 area agencies on aging, nearly 20,000 service providers, 281 Tribal organizations, and 1 Native Hawaiian organization representing 400 Tribes. The OAA also includes community service employment for low-income older Americans; training, research, and demonstration activities in the field of aging; and vulnerable elder rights protection activities.
The Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (Kathleen Sebelius, at the time) established ACL using her authority on April 18, 2012. This decision brought together the Administration on Aging, the Office on Disability, and the Administration on Developmental Disabilities. Maximize the independence, well-being, and health of older adults, people with disabilities across the lifespan, and their families and caregivers. https://acl.gov/about-community-living
Conclusion
Americans may want to stop romanticizing our rugged individualism and “self-made” glorification of doing it alone. Modern loneliness isn’t just about being physically removed from other people, it may also be about an emotional state of feeling apart from others and nature, due to the unnatural consequences of capitalism.
In 2017, the former U.S. Surgeon General Vivek H. Murthy declared an “epidemic of loneliness.” Loneliness, Murthy argues, lies behind a host of problems — anxiety, violence, trauma, crime, suicide, depression, political apathy, and even political polarization. Compounding this sense of fragmentation is the fact that overall rates of loneliness have reportedly been exponentially increasing regardless of age, educational background or geographical location. Capitalism engenders feelings of insecurity and loneliness by limiting the majority of the population’s access to crucial resources, creating distrustful competition between people, a phenomenon exemplified by the rise in xenophobia and racism towards migrants. If capitalism and individualism are cultural practices that cause social isolation and loneliness, which then lead to poor individual and societal health, I guess this gives “United We Stand, Divided We Fall” a whole new meaning.
References
- MacLeod S, Tkatch R, Kraemer S, Fellows A, McGinn M, Schaeffer J, Yeh CS. COVID-19 Era Social Isolation among Older Adults. Geriatrics (Basel). 2021 May 18;6(2):52. doi: 10.3390/geriatrics6020052. PMID: 34069953; PMCID: PMC8162327.
- Heu, L. C., van Zomeren, M., & Hansen, N. (2019). Lonely Alone or Lonely Together? A Cultural-Psychological Examination of Individualism–Collectivism and Loneliness in Five European Countries. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(5), 780–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218796793
- The New Yorker: The History of Loneliness, March 30, 2020, Jill Lepore
- Farver, Bakhtawar, & Narang, 2002; Harker, 2001; https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=caaurj
- Schwartz & Montgomery, 2002; https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=caaurj
- Farver, Bakhtawar, & Narang, 2002; Schwartz & Montgomery, 2002; Zhou, 1997; https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=caaurj
- Sharma: Loneliness, Ethnic Identity, and Dimensions of Membership Published by W&M ScholarWorks, 2012
- Cheryan & Monin, 2005; Farver, Narang, & Bhada, 2002; https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=caaurj
- The New Yorker: The History of Loneliness, March 30, 2020, Jill Lepore
- PBS.org: ANDREW CARNEGIE: THE RICHEST MAN IN THE WORLD | The Steel Business
- www.socialconnectedness.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Emma-Harries-Social-Isolation-and-its-Relationship-to-the-Urban-Environment.pdf
- https://www.industryweek.com/innovation/process-improvement/article/21961364/ford-launched-the-modern-assembly-line-a-century-ago-and-changed-society
- OneHealth. (2023). https://www.epa.gov/one-health.
- https://fee.org/resources/individualism-a-deeply-american-philosophy/
- Campbell, A. E. “An Excess of Isolation: Isolation and the American Civil War.” The Journal of Southern History, vol. 29, no. 2, 1963, pp. 161–74. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2205038. Accessed 15 Mar. 2023.
- https://classonline.org.uk/blog/item/the-capitalist-disease-of-loneliness
