Mapping the Evolution of a Wicked Problem: Water Pollution in Pittsburgh
By Team Autopoiesis: Kimberly Blacutt, Bea Maggipinto, Jocelyn Morningstar, Deeya Parikh, & Max Shim
This article documents our third assignment, “Mapping the Evolution of a Wicked Problem” for the 2024 Transition Design Seminar taught by Terry Irwin and Gideon Kossoff at CMU. Our team will be tackling the wicked problem of water pollution in Pittsburgh for the duration of this class and will see how it connects to other wicked problems in Pittsburgh and beyond. By mapping the evolution of water pollution in Pittsburgh, we aim to trace the historical evolution of our problem over the span of several decades to understand how past events created dynamics of change and transition and have created consequences we deal with today.
When did the problem of water pollution in Pittsburgh begin?
This is a bit of a trick question since there are so many factors at play, and as we have seen in our previous research the problem of water pollution in Pittsburgh is hard to define. In fact, when mapping stakeholder relations, we realized that what some groups see as a problem, others see a benefit.
We cannot pinpoint a moment or an event where water pollution in Pittsburgh began, what we will do, however, is narrate the evolution of our problem starting from what seems like a logical beginning point: the foundation of Pittsburgh as Pitt Township in 1771 (because, before Pittsburgh existed, it seems a fallacy to consider the problem as taking place in Pittsburgh). Yes, the waterways we call the Allegheny, the Monongahela and the Ohio Rivers existed, and groups of native Americans, like the Shawnee, had inhabited the lands, but we will see that the problem of water pollution became an issue later, as the concentration of population in the area of Pittsburgh grew.
Our Working Process
Once our team had determined the critical start date for mapping the evolution of water pollution in Pittsburgh we were able to get started. The next step was to consider key factors and events that created and were connected to the problem of water pollution in Pittsburgh — we also considered the levels of scale of these factors. If these were big scale, collective events, they belonged at the “landscape” level. If they were about societal systems, such as laws, policies, practices, and rules, they were at the “regime” level. Finally if these were small experiments, innovations or ideas, they were on the smallest or “niche” level.
During our first work session we speculated which events were most important in the historical development of our wicked problem, and placed those on the board. We quickly realized that our board would eventually be populated with a myriad of events related to the different STEEP facets we had previously studied, such as social, technological, environmental, economic and political events.
To dive deep into the historical evolution of our problem, each team member dove deep into a specific time period and gathered information about relevant events at different scales for that time period. Then we came together and figured out how they overlapped and were connected.
At first we struggled to distribute our events properly between the levels, but as we learned more and thanks to feedback from our transition design instructors, we began to understand what type of events fit best at each level.
Below we will discuss in detail what we discovered about the historical events that took place in and around Pittsburgh from 1700–today that are connected to the wicked problem of water pollution in Pittsburgh.
Contributing Factors to Pittsburgh Water Pollution 1700–1850
Pittsburgh was established as a borough in 1794, during this time residents were drinking water from the rivers and natural springs from the hills of Pittsburgh. This water was contaminated and often smelled of sulfur due to mining and industrialization. In 1802 was the first written documentation to establish a public water system. This system ended up being a series of 4 public wells where residents could obtain their drinking water. This system, however, was unable to serve the borough for long, since it was growing rapidly, lines to get water became too long and people resorted to drinking the river water yet again.
In 1816 Pittsburgh became a city and soon after in 1822, the residents petitioned the city council to create a public water system using the water from the rivers. Because of the increased demand and rapidly growing population, in 1828 the city constructed its first water pumping system. The pump station was constructed on Cecil Alley and pumped approximately 1 million gallons of water into a reservoir on Grant Hill. The system had 1 pump, 1 steam boiler, 1 reservoir, and a 1.5-mile pipe to connect the pump station and reservoir. The total cost of construction was $111,000. The pump operated for about 21 hours per week and would pump around 40,000 gallons per day. Due to this system, households had to limit their water usage. Through this time Pittsburgh’s population continued to grow and put stress on their water system.
In 1844 they abandoned the old pump system for a new expanded one. The pump station was built at 11th Street and Etna Street and connected to a reservoir that housed 7.5 million gallons of water. The station pumped approximately 9 million gallons per day and pumped continuously for 40 years. During this time additional pump stations were set up so residents could easily access the water.
Something important to note during this time was that in 1794 the Eagle Fire Company was established. This was the first firefighting organization in the Pittsburgh area. Throughout the 19th century, other firefighting organizations were established, like the Allegheny Fire Company in 1802. This is important because in 1845 Pittsburgh at the Great Fire which killed 2 people, made 12,000 people homeless, and caused millions of dollars of damages. They had the manpower through firefighting organizations to deal with such an emergency; however, due to the lack of water and water transportation, they were unable to obtain enough water to put out the fire. Showing that a well-organized water system is crucial to cities, especially Pittsburgh.
In 1849, Pittsburgh was significantly affected by a mass cholera outbreak. During this time in the US, cholera was spreading through cities rapidly and Pittsburgh was no exception. Several hundred people died because the drinking water quality was so poor. When Germ Theory started to take hold, it showed the critical need for clean water to support a healthy life, and cities like Pittsburgh needed to organize themselves quickly. [6] Then in 1855, a British physician named John Snow gave a powerful demonstration that the cholera epidemic that was occurring in London could potentially be connected to the piped river water coming from the sewage-contaminated areas of the Thames River. [1] This idea took hold and started to spread to different cities as the idea that dirty water was causing these grave illnesses.
Contributing Factors to Pittsburgh Water Pollution 1850–1900
In the latter half of the 1800s, Pittsburgh’s water pollution crisis evolved amid the city’s industrial boom and growing population. The steel and coal industries, fueled by the Industrial Revolution and furthered by the Civil War (1861–1865), substantially contributed to the degradation of waterways, with factories and mines discharging waste into Pittsburgh’s rivers. The natural springs and rivers from which residents drew water, now became tainted with pollutants and sulfur from rampant coal mining.
The introduction of the Bessemer process in 1850 significantly increased the scale and speed of steel production, coinciding with the Civil War’s increased need for artillery and weaponry [7]. Following the iron and steel industry’s unanimous adoption of coke, the Pittsburgh seam, the nation’s largest producer of bituminous coal, was exploited to meet the growing demands. Coke, the high-heat, coal-derived fuel led to heavy smoke that blackened the skies and contaminated the waterways with noxious detritus. Furthermore, inadequately treated sewage was routinely discharged into the same bodies of water.
For much of the 19th century, river water was pumped directly to homes and businesses with minimal treatment that focused on the natural settling of suspended solids in reservoirs. This practice was not uncommon for public water supplies in the United States and Europe during that era. Despite regulations aimed at mitigating the environmental impact of iron and steel plants on Pittsburgh’s water system, regulations were neither strictly imposed nor followed. By the end of the century, the contamination of the Allegheny River had reached a critical point, highlighting the need for water purification, as evidenced by the work of physician John Snow.
Between 1860 and 1880, Pittsburgh experienced significant economic growth and employment opportunities, but this was soon tempered by economic “panic” and a depression in the 1880s. Although steel and iron production slowed, the remnants of past activities continued to wreak environmental havoc. The city’s limited finances hindered improvements to the infrastructure, leaving Pittsburgh in a state of stagnation and neglect. In response to decades of industrial activity that compromised water quality, deteriorated infrastructure, and the presence of sewage, the City Beautiful movement in the late 19th century in the United States played a pivotal role in the revitalization and enhancement of Pittsburgh.
Contributing Factors to Pittsburgh Water Pollution 1900–1950
Pittsburgh’s population and propulsion toward leadership in the steel industry was booming in the early 20th century. In the first decade of the 20th century, the population had reached more than half a million people. [1] A large and growing population demanded the construction of supporting infrastructure for basic utilities such as water. At the time, 70% of the water delivery systems in larger cities across the country involved lead pipes as the conduit for water [2]. Lead was durable, easy to work with and resisted corrosion better than other materials, so it was a logical construction material for Pittsburgh to use for the expansion of its infrastructure. At that time the risks of lead exposure were not given much consideration, as it was only towards the end of the 19th century that health experts had turned their attention to the toxicity of lead in water [3]. Lead exposure can cause a myriad of health issues, such as anemia, high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney disease, reduced fertility, and has been linked to brain damage and disorders including ADHD, antisocial behavior, lower IQ, and other issues. Furthermore, the negative health effects of lead exposure may be irreversible. [4]. Even after the dangerous effects of lead exposure had been made clear, lobbying and research sponsored by the Lead Industries Association permitted the persistence of lead use in Pittsburgh until 1969, when Allegheny County finally banned the use of lead pipes. [3]
Although the historic lead pipe infrastructure is problematic today, that was not one of the main issues with water pollution in Pittsburgh in the 20th century. At that time, Pittsburgh’s water was untreated and was linked to disease in the city’s inhabitants. In that time disease such as typhoid fever was rampant, with over five thousand cases documented in 1907, 648 of which were fatal.[1] Besides this, the water flowing through the Allegheny was visibly contaminated. This led to the construction of a slow-sand filtration plant in 1905 and by the end of the decade, “the water supply of peninsular Pittsburgh was being filtered.”[1] During the time of filtration treatment, there were no chemicals used to treat the water besides chlorine for disinfection. Only during times of acid river water might soda ash be added to the water before filtration.[1] After 1950, Pittsburghers began treating the water with more chemicals, realizing that the filtration system was not doing enough to treat the water.
The issues discussed thus far illuminate issues related to the health effects on residents of water borne pollution in Pittsburgh. Another water-related problem worth discussing here is of a different type — environmental — and its effects are felt and understood at a different scale. The problem is flooding. Pittsburgh had several severe, destructive floods in the first half of the 20th century, the worst of which is known as The Great St. Patrick’s Day flood. That flood took place in 1936 and is the worst flood in Pittsburgh’s recorded history. Flood levels peaked at 46’ and devastated the city. Property damage was estimated at $150–250 million which equates to over $5 billion today. 60,000 steel workers were out of work due to mill damage, electric power was out for over a week, and the water supply was greatly contaminated with debris. Today many buildings have markers that signal how high the floodwaters reached the day of the great flood [include image]. The construction of the Kinzua Dam, one the largest dams in the United States, and the Allegheny Reservoir were completed in 1965 to address and prepare for future floods in Pittsburgh. Those massive infrastructure projects displaced over 600 members of the Seneca Nation whose lands were condemned by the construction. The flooding of the tribal lands by the federal government violated the 1794 Treaty of Canandaigua signed by President George Washington himself which stipulated that the land had been granted to the Seneca nation. The economic construction costs of these large infrastructure projects totaled about $108 million. It’s estimated that since its construction, the Kinzua dam has prevented $1 billion in damages, especially as it was able to store the continual heavy rains brought forth by tropical storm Agnes in 1972. [5]
Contributing Factors to Pittsburgh Water Pollution 1950–2000
The 1950s represent a pivotal moment for Pittsburgh’s water infrastructures. Since the flood in the 1930s, the community had become increasingly scared of further worsening of the problem. The flood prompted the authorities to initiate the project of a dam, the Kinzua Dam. Because of the high costs of the structure, the project took 2 decades to take off in 1956 and another 10 years to be completed in 1965. The dam brought stability to the flood-prone city of Pittsburgh and surrounding rural areas, and it has been estimated that so far, it has prevented over $1 billion in damages. The Kinzua dam has cost just above $100 million, and it’s one of the largest in the United States. However, this project came at a high cost for the Native American population in the area, reason why the Kinzua Dam is still considered so controversial. The Seneca Nation, who was assigned the territories in 1794 with the Treaty of Canandaigua by the federal government, saw 10.000 acres of land removed from their reservation. This breakage of a federal treaty cost nearly one-third of the Seneca Nation’s territory and much of its fertile land. It was a tragedy in which over 600 Seneca members were displaced. This was highly traumatic for the community, which still mourns the loss of land and has been portrayed in a 2017 award-winning documentary, Lake of Betrayal: The Story of Kinzua Dam. Native American songwriter Buffy Sainte-Marie dedicated her protest song “My Country Tis of Thy People You’re Dying” to these events in a period, the 1960s/70s, in which songs were often used as an instrument of protest and dissent towards regime-level events.
During the 1900s awareness was growing around pollutants. In Pittsburgh, the issue of lead was particularly present. Even after the dangerous effects of lead exposure had been made clear, lobbying and research sponsored by the Lead Industries Association permitted the persistence of lead use in Pittsburgh until 1969, when Allegheny County finally banned the use of lead pipes. In 1972, the Clean Water Act marked the start of the regulations around pollutants in the waters, making it harder for people or companies to discharge them freely without a permit. Many improvements to the infrastructures were made in these years to ensure a higher level of filtration of the water directed to Pittsburgh’s homes.
In 1984, the modern-day Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority was created, absorbing the water department in 1995, and becoming the sole proprietor of the sewer system in 1999.
Contributing Factors to Pittsburgh Water Pollution since 2000
Since the turn of the millennium, Pittsburgh has witnessed a series of significant events and developments aimed at combating its long standing water pollution challenges. The city has embarked on ambitious infrastructure upgrades, notably through the Allegheny County Sanitary Authority’s (ALCOSAN) Clean Water Plan, which seeks to expand wastewater treatment capabilities and reduce combined sewer overflows (CSOs) [8] by integrating green infrastructure solutions like permeable pavements and rain gardens. [9] This initiative, however, faces hurdles of financial and logistical constraints due to outdated systems. In addition, regulatory efforts have intensified, with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) enforcing the Clean Water Act, leading to stricter oversight of policy towards sustainable urban planning.[10]
The era has also been marked by heightened community engagement and environmental advocacy, with organizations and volunteer groups mobilizing around river cleanups, tree planting, and public education campaigns to foster a collective stewardship of water resources. This community action reflects a growing public consciousness about environmental issues and the importance of clean water.
Technological advancements have also been a sense of hope, with new wastewater treatment technologies and smart water management systems enhancing the city’s ability to monitor and address pollution more effectively. [11] Despite these efforts, Pittsburgh has also seen its share of legal battles and advocacy efforts aimed at holding polluters and regulatory bodies accountable, leading to significant settlements and agreements designed to protect water quality.
In essence, Pittsburgh’s journey through the 21st century reflects various approaches to tackling water pollution, characterized by infrastructural innovation,, community activism, and technological advancement. Despite facing significant challenges, these united efforts illustrate the city’s resilient commitment to overcoming its industrial legacy and securing a cleaner, healthier water environment for future generations.
Conclusion
We have examined the historical evolution of water pollution in Pittsburgh from the 1700s to the present and have seen how singular events can ripple through time and space and cause large impacts.
During the early years of Pittsburgh as a city, there were several niche level technological advancements that extended into the regime and even landscape levels that helped shape Pittsburgh into what it is today. Public water system changed the way the city functioned and allowed it to grow into an industrial metropolis. The use of pump stations helped to streamline water production and distribution which allowed the city to start to thrive. Landscape events like industrialization, the cholera outbreak, and the spread of germ theory had their effects on Pittsburgh which caused the city to continuously adapt. While many improvements were made to the water infrastructures in the city, these were not short of controversies. The Kinzua Dam caused the loss of a third of the land of the Seneca Nation, displacing many in the community.
During the second half of the 19th century, at landscape level, the Civil War (1861–1865) played a pivotal role in exacerbating the environmental, and in particular, the water contamination in Pittsburgh. During this time, there was an increase in demand for coal and steel for the production of artillery and weaponry. This need coincided with the adoption of the Bessemer process at the regime level by the steel and iron plants, which not only accelerated production but also led to the increase of toxic detritus into the waterways which was then poorly treated and supplied to households and businesses. At the niche level, efforts were made, such as the City Beautiful initiative, to slow down and potentially reverse the impact of industrialization on the city of Pittsburgh.
As time went on, efforts to address pollution emerged at various levels and included such events as Rachel Carson’s publication of Silent Spring and the Clean Water Act. Community engagement in combating water pollution and initiatives like Allegheny County Sanitary Authority’s Clean Water Plan show that public awareness about water pollution and resources towards combating it has vastly increased in the past centuries, and especially in the last decades. Although there have been issues with wastewater treatment in Pittsburgh, overall there have been great technological advancements in treatment and water management systems.
Our team learned that a myriad of events at the niche, regime, and landscape levels have taken place in Pittsburgh and have had ripple effects throughout the city and beyond. Similarly, we have also seen that events taking place in other parts of the state, country, and world have impacted Pittsburgh and changed its evolutionary course and have had impacts on the wicked problem of water pollution there.
Citations:
[1] Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority. Our History | Pittsburgh Water & Sewer Authority. (n.d.). https://www.pgh2o.com/about-us/mission-vision-and-core-values/our-history
[2] Rabin R. The lead industry and lead water pipes “A Modest Campaign”. Am J Public Health. 2008 Sep;98(9):1584–92. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2007.113555. Epub 2008 Jul 16. PMID: 18633098; PMCID: PMC2509614.
[3] May, L. W., Fischbach, J. R., & Abbott, M. (2017). Informing Pittsburgh’s options to address lead in water. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/perspectives/PE200/PE247/RAND_PE247.pdf
[4] World Health Organization. (n.d.). Lead poisoning. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/lead-poisoning-and-health
[5] Laih, K. (n.d.). The controversial Kinzua Dam: Pennsylvania center for the book. The Controversial Kinzua Dam | Pennsylvania Center for the Book. https://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/literary-cultural-heritage-map-pa/feature-articles/controversial-kinzua-dam#:~:text=The%20budget%20of%20the%20project,%241%20billion%20in%20flood%20damages.
[6] History of the Pittsburgh Public Water Supply. City of Pittsburgh. https://apps.pittsburghpa.gov/pwsa/History_of_the_Pittsburgh_Public_Water_Supply2.ppt. Accessed 15 Mar. 2024. PowerPoint Presentation from pittsburghpa.gov/
[7] Explorepahistory.Com, explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-2C5. Accessed 17 Mar. 2024.
[8] Alcosan’s $2 Billion clean water plan to reduce wastewater overflows. (n.d.) https://www.alcosan.org/clean-water-plan
[9] https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-10/documents/pittsburgh-united-fact-sheets-508.pdf
[10] PWSA sentenced for violating federal Clean Water Act. (2023). https://www.justice.gov/usao-wdpa/pr/pwsa-sentenced-violating-federal-clean-water-act
[11] Sensus news: Pittsburgh water and sewer authority selects Sensus Smart Water Network. (2015). https://sensus.com/news-events/news-releases/pittsburgh-water-and-sewer-authority-selects-sensus-smart-water-network/
