INDIAN PAINTINGS — Murals of India

Murals are artworks painted on solid surfaces like walls—Wall Paintings of India. All paintings done on walls are not necessarily called mural paintings. This term is usually reserved for
classical styles used for temples, churches and palaces.

Sugeesh, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Introduction

Mural painting is inherently different from all other forms of pictorial art in that it is organically connected with architecture. The use of colour, design, and thematic treatment can radically alter the sensation of spatial proportions of the building; in this sense, a mural is the only form of painting that is truly three-dimensional, since it modifies and partakes of a given space.

Apart from its organic relation to architecture, a second characteristic of mural painting is its broad public significance. The mural artist must conceive pictorially a social, religious, or patriotic theme on the appropriate scale in reference both to the structural exigencies of the wall and to the idea expressed.

The history of Indian murals starts in ancient and early medieval times, from the 2nd century BC to the 8th — 10th century AD. There are known more than 20 locations around India containing murals from this period, mainly natural caves and rock-cut chambers. The highest achievements of this time are the caves of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, and Kailasanatha temple in Ellora Caves.

Intent of Murals in Ancient Times

Murals from this period depict mainly religious themes of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu religions.

There are also locations where paintings were made to adorn mundane premises, like the ancient theatre room in Jogimara Cave and possible royal hunting lodge circa 7th-century AD — Ravan Chhaya rock shelter.

Elucidation of Murals of India

1. Bhimbetka

• The word Bhimbetka is said to derive from Bhimbaithka, meaning ‘sitting place of Bhima’.
• The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological World Heritage site located in Raisen District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
• The Bhimbetka shelters are the earliest rock-cut caves in India and belong to various periods including — the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Chalcolithic.
• The largest numbers of them belong to the Mesolithic period. Some analyses suggest that at least some of these shelters were inhabited by man for in excess of 100,000 years. Some of the Stone Age rock paintings found among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are approximately 30,000 years old.
• 400 painted rock shelters in five clusters. Largely in white and red (though other colours were also used), the paintings are essentially a record of the varied animal life of the surrounding forest and of various facets — economic and social- of peoples’ lives.
• Images include extinct fauna, mythical creatures; people dancing
  with hands joined; domesticated animals, carts and chariots; designs and patterns, inscriptions and also some symbols of the Historic period and along with pictorial narratives of events such as large processions
  of men on caparisoned horses and elephants, and battle scenes.
• Though animals were painted in a naturalistic style, humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner.
• The artists here made their paintings on the walls and ceilings of the rock shelters. Some of the paintings are reported from the shelters where people lived. But some others were made in places which do not seem to have been living spaces at all. Perhaps these places had some religious importance.

2. Jogimara Paintings

• Jogimara Paintings are the best example of the Pre-Buddha paintings is the Jogimara cave, which is situated at Amarnath near the origin of Narmada, in Sarguja in Madhya Pradesh.
• The paintings of these caves have been dated from 300 BC to as back as 1000 BC.
• The roof of the cave has some seven paintings which include human figures, fish and elephants.
• There are two layers of paintings in it. The Original paintings are of expert artists but the upper layer has been done by incompetent artists.
• In the true sense, the Jogimara Caves seem to be the first human
  endeavours as expert paintings.

3. Pitalkhora Caves

• Pitalkhora — The caves of Pitalkhora are located near Ellora in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
• Pitalkhora Caves belonged to one of the largest temple complexes of Buddhists in India. Today it is known as the largest group of Hinayana Buddhism monuments in India.

4. Ajanta Caves

• Ajanta is the only surviving example of a painting of the first century BCE and the fifth century CE.
• The subject matter of these paintings is almost exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.
• They are mostly associated with the Jataka, a collection of stories, recording the previous births of the Lord Buddha.
• Ajanta paintings largely depict events from Buddha’s life in the form of Jataka tales and they belong to 200 BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. Paintings here are drawn in continuity without using separate frames and they are essentially two-dimensional.
• Expressions in these are expressed through hand gestures. Even animals and birds are shown with emotions.
• It also reflects the social life of that time and females are shown in different hair styles. They are predominantly frescos.
• ‘Dying Princess’ is one of the most critically acclaimed paintings for its emotions.
• Early paintings were made by the Gupta rulers.
• Ajanta caves can be classified into two phases namely the Hinayana phase (Uniconic) and the Mahayana phase (Iconic). Both phases of the excavation and the creation of art were patronized by Hindu kings, the Satavahanas in the early period and the Vakatakas in the latter period.
• Ajanta paintings are known as the fountainhead of all painting traditions in Asia.
• In cave No. XVII painted probably in circa 6th century CE is a painting representing Buddha’s visit to the door of Yashodhara’s abode in the city of Kapilavastu while she herself has come out with her son Rahula to meet the Great King.
• A beautiful depiction of feminine beauty is the painting of Maya Devi, the mother of the Buddha.
• Alongside these Buddhist paintings, there are also a few Brahmanical figures of iconographic interest: Indra, a Hindu divinity, is depicted flying amid clouds together with celestial nymphs holding musical instruments.
• An example of ceiling decoration is from Cave No. XVII and belongs to circa 6th century A.D. The pink elephant is from the same decorative painting ‘and can be seen in detail.

Notable specimens

• The earliest paintings at Ajanta are in cave No. IX and X of which the only surviving one is a group on the left wall of cave X.
• This portrays a king with attendants in front of a tree decked with flags. The King has come to the sacred Bodhi tree for fulfilling some vow connected with the prince who is attending close to the king.
• The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani from Cave I is one of the masterpieces of Ajanta Painting executed in the late 6th century CE. This beautifully ornamented figure is more than life-size and is shown stopping slightly and holding in his right hand a lotus flower.
• The Padmapani, the Bearer of the Lotus. It is the most popular Bodhisattva in Buddhism. This gentle figure is one of the masterpieces of Indian art in Cave 1, Ajanta.
• The Vajrapani, the Bearer of the Thunderbolt. The glorious figure portrays the majesty of the Spirit in Cave 1, Ajanta.

Caves of Ajanta

Paintings based on texts written in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and pure Sanskrit can be observed in cave numbers 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 16, 17, 19 and 26. There are 18 such paintings; these are listed below, along with their sources.

• Cave no. 1

1. A lady reclining on a couch Sundarananda Kāvya
2. Princess Mālini and Buddha Mahāvastu Avadāna
3. King Śibi Mahābhārata

• Cave no. 2

1. The mythical world of Nāgas Mahāvastu Avadāna
2. Purna Avadāna Divyāvadāna

• Cave no. 6

1. A bhikshu (?) A Brahmin Upāsaka
2. Buddha figures Mahayana tradition

Cave no. 10

1. The arrival of the king (Aśoka) to worship the Bodhi tree Edicts of King Aśoka
2. Elephant with six tusks Chaddanta-jātaka, Mahāvastu Avadāna

• Cave no. 16

1. Hasti Jātakam Jātakamālā (a text written in pure Sanskrit)
2. A dying princess Sundarananda Kāvya
3. Conversion of Sundarananda Sundārananda Kāvya

• Cave no. 17

1. Group of six heretics Divyāvadāna
2. A toilet scene, Princess Sundari Sundarananda Kāvya
3. Prince Sundarananda bewildered Sundarananda Kāvya
4. The Buddha with Yaśodharā and Rāhula Mahāvastu Avadāna
5. Sinhala Avadāna Divyāvadāna
6. Enigma of flying horse Valāhaka jātaka, Mahāvastu Avadāna

5. Ellora Caves

Ellora cave paintings and sculptures unlike Ajanta paintings have an influence of three religions — Jaina, Buddhism and Hinduism. While Buddhist themes are from Jatakas, Hindu themes are from epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata and other mythological stories. All of these are now in a damaged condition, almost unrecognizable.

• A number of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples were excavated from Ellora between the 8th and 10th centuries A.D. from the living rock.
• Located nearly 100 Km away from Ajanta caves in the Sahyadri ranges of Maharashtra, it is a group of 34 caves — 17 Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist and 5 Jain.
• These set of caves were developed during the period between the 5th and 11th centuries CE by various guilds from Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
• The most impressive of these, the Kailashnath Temple is a free-standing structure which is in fact a monolith which has several fragments of paintings on the ceiling of the different parts of this temple. It was developed under the patronage of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Other notable specimens are:

• Cave №10 is a Buddhist Chaitya cave known as Vishwakarma Cave or carpenter’s cave wherein Buddha is seated in Vyakhyana Mudra here and the Bodhi tree is carved at his back.
• Cave №14 is themed “Raavankikhai”.
• Cave №15 is Dashavatara Temple.
• Two famous Jain caves are Indra Sabha (Cave 32) and Jagannath Sabha (Cave 33).

6. Bagh and Badami Paintings

Bagh caves are also similar to Ajanta caves, but themes are more secular in nature and apart from Buddhist themes, day-to-day life has also been shown.

• The paintings from Bagh caves in Madhya Pradesh correspond to those paintings of Ajanta in cave No. I and II.
• Stylistically both belong to the same form, but Bagh figures are more tightly modelled and are stronger in outline.
• They are earthlier and more human than those at Ajanta.
• The earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known, are the fragments found in Badami caves, in cave No.III belonging to circa 6th century A.D.
• The painting of Siva and Parvati is found somewhat well preserved.
• Though the technique follows that of Ajanta and Bagh, the modelling is much more sensitive in texture and expression and the outline is soft and elastic.
• The paintings of Ajanta, Bagh and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and the Deccan at its best.
• Sittanavasal and other centres of paintings show the extent of its penetration in the South.
• The paintings of Sittanavasal are intimately connected with Jain themes and symbolism, but enjoy the same norm and technique as that of Ajanta.
• The contours of these paintings are firmly drawn dark on a light red ground.
• On the ceiling of the Verandah is painted a large decorative scene of great beauty, a lotus pool with birds, elephants, buffaloes and a young man plucking flowers.

7. Badami Paintings

Badami is a cave site in the state of Karnataka. It was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty. The Chalukya king, Manglesha, patronized the excavations of the Badami caves.

The patron record of the cave shows Vaishnava affiliation. Therefore the cave is popularly known as Vishnu cave. Only a fragment of the painting has survived on the vaulted roof of the front mandapa.

Paintings in these caves depict palace scenes. One shows the Kirtivarman, the son of Pulakesin- I and the elder brother of Mangalesha, seated inside the palace with his wife and feudatories watching a dance scene.

Stylistically speaking, the painting represents an extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to Badami in south India. The sinuously drawn lines, fluid forms and compact composition exemplify the proficiency and maturity of the artist. The gracefully drawn faces of the king and queen remind us of the style of modelling in Ajanta.

It is noteworthy to observe that the contours of different parts of the face create protruding structures of the face itself. Thus, with simple line treatment artists could create volume.

Paintings at Badami are among the earliest surviving in Hindu temples belonging to the 6th century CE and patronized by Chalukya kings who succeded Vakataka kings, just as the paintings at Ajanta and Sittannavasal are the earliest Buddhist and Jain murals.

They are an extension of the tradition of mural painting from Ajanta to Badami in South India. The most surviving murals include the paintings of Vishnu, Shiva and Parvathi as well as some other characters. Apart from these, murals of Chalyukya kings are also shown.

8. Bhaja and Kanheri Caves

• Bhaja and Kanheri are Buddhist caves in Maharashtra.
• Bhaja Caves located at the Valley of Indrayani River, near Lonavala in Maharashtra has 22 rock-cut caves that were created approximately 2,200 years ago, circa 200 BC.
• These are one of the oldest surviving examples of rock-cut architecture in India.
• These caves are known for their ornate facades.
• There is an impressive chaitya though most of the caves in Bhaja are viharas. Apart from the sculptural wonders, Bhaja Caves contain the paintings of Buddha.
• Due to the nearness to Karla caves, the Bhaja Caves are sometimes known as Bhaja- Karla caves.

9. Ravan Chaya Rock Shelter

Ravan Chaya Rock Shelter paintings in the Keonjhar district of Odisha date back to the 7th century AD and are secular in nature. Influenced by Fresco Paintings.

Development of Mural Painting in various kingdoms

1. Pallava Paintings

• The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya kings in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts and they helped in spreading mural tradition further down south in 7th century CE.
• Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was responsible for building temples at Panamalai, Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram.
• The inscription at Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarman I with numerous titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists), Chaityakari (temple builder), which show his interest in art activities.
• The paintings in these temples too were done at his initiative, though only fragments remain. The Panamalai figure of a female divinity is drawn gracefully.
• Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the Pallava king, Rajsimha. Only traces of paintings remain now which depict Somaskanda.
• Faces are round and large. Lines are rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared with the paintings of an earlier period.
• The depiction of the torso still remains like the earlier sculptural tradition but is elongated.

2. Pandya Paintings

• They include paintings at Sitanvasal and Tirumalaipuram.
• A few fragmented layers of paintings can be seen in Tirumalaipuram.
• Paintings at Sitanvasal are Jaina paintings in Tamil Nadu in Puddukkottai town near Trichy.
• In Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of shrines, in verandas, and on the brackets.
• The paintings are located in rock-cut temples and were made in the 8th-9th century CE.

3. Chola Paintings

• The tradition of building temples and embellishing them with carvings and paintings continued during the reign of the Chola kings who ruled over the region from the ninth to the thirteenth century.
• Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the most important are those in Brihadeswara temple.
• Brihadeshwara temple also houses paintings of Hindu deities that were made during the Chola period i.e. 9th to 13th century. Chola art also reached its zenith when Chola reached the pinnacle of power in the 11th century.
• The contours of the figures are firmly drawn and painted in vermilion red on a lighter background. The body is rendered in yellow with subtle modelling. Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, and rhythm in their swaying movement, all speak of the artists’ skill in creative imagination in visualizing the forms in the architectural context.
• The paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage surrounding the shrine in the Brihadeshwara temple
• The paintings show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc.
• The paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage
  surrounding the shrine.
• Two layers of paint were found when they were discovered. The upper
  layer was painted during the Nayak period, in the sixteenth century.
• This is because of the cleaning of the surface painting, examples of the great tradition of painting during the Chola Period were unveiled.
• Bridheshwara paintings show the perfection that mural tradition has reached in South India. During the Nayak period, the Chola paintings were painted over.
• The Chola frescos lying underneath have an ardent spirit of Saivism expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Chola.

4. Vijayanagara murals

• With the decline of the power of the Chola dynasty in the 13th century, the Vijayanagara Dynasty captured and brought under its control the region from Hampi to Trichy with Hampi serving as its capital.
• Vijayanagara rulers also promoted mural paintings and the paintings in the temples like Lepakshi Temple depicting Hindu gods — mainly Shiva — as well as secular themes like royal scenes are examples of their art.
• Other famous painting art includes wall paintings such as Dasavathara (ten Avatars of Vishnu) in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana paintings (tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi.
• The paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy, done in the 14th century represent the early phase of the Vijayanagara style.
• In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa narrating events from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, incarnations of Vishnu and so on.
• Among the important panels are the ones which show Vidyaranya, the spiritual teacher of Bukkaraya Harsha, being carried in a palanquin in a procession and the incarnations of Vishnu.
• In Lepakshi, near Hindupur, in present Andhra Pradesh, there are glorious examples of Vijayanagara paintings on the walls of the Shiva temple.
• In keeping with tradition, the Vijayanagara painters evolved a pictorial language wherein the faces are shown in profile and figures and objects two-dimensionally.
• Lines become still but fluid, and compositions appear in rectilinear compartments.
• Some of the primary colours are totally absent and these
  paintings mark the decline of mural paintings.

5. Nayaka Murals

• These stylistic conventions of the preceding centuries (influenced by Vijayanagara) were adopted by artists in various centres in South India as can be seen in the paintings of the Nayaka Period.
• Nayaka paintings of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and Tiruvarur.
• In Thiruparakunram, paintings are found from two different periods — the fourteenth and the seventeenth century. Early paintings depict scenes from the life of Vardhaman Mahavira.
• The Nayaka paintings depict episodes from the Mahabharata and the
  Ramayana and also scenes from Krishna-Leela.
• Nayaka paintings were more or less an extension of the Vijayanagara style. Their 60-panel mural of Ramayana in a temple near Arcot is a famous one.
• Male figures are shown slim-waisted but with less heavy abdomen as compared to those in Vijayanagara.
• In Chidambaram, there are panels of paintings narrating stories related to Shiva and Vishnu — Shiva as Bhikshatana Murti, Vishnu as Mohini, etc
• The examples cited above suggest that Nayaka paintings were more or less an extension of the Vijayanagara style with minor regional modifications and incorporations. The painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli is a good example.

6. Kerela Murals

• They were drawn in the 16th to 18th century, partly inspired by the Nayakas and Vijayanagara style, and evolved a pictorial language and technique of their own while discriminately adopting certain stylistic elements from Nayaka and Vijayanagara schools.
• The painters evolved a language taking cues from contemporary traditions, like Kathakali and kalam ezhuthu (ritual floor painting of Kerala), using vibrant and luminous colours, representing human figures in three-dimensionality.
• The artist seems to have also derived sources from oral traditions and local versions of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata for painted narration.
• More than sixty sites have been found with mural paintings which include three palaces — the Dutch Palace in Kochi, Krishnapuram Palace in
  Kayamkulam and Padmanabhapuram palace.
• Among the sites where one can see the mature phase of Kerala’s mural painting tradition are Pundareekapuram Krishna temple, Panayanarkavu, Thirukodithanam, Triprayar Sri Rama temple and Trissur Vadakkunathan temple.

Conclusion

As we can see, murals of South India were mostly related to Hindu deities, unlike those of other parts which had origin in Buddhist art. Even today mural painting on interior and exterior walls of houses in villages or havelis is prevalent in different parts of the country. These paintings are usually made by women either at the time of ceremonies or festivals or as a routine to clean and decorate the walls.

Some of the traditional forms of murals are Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Shekhawati paintings in Rajasthan, Mithila paintings in northern Bihar’s Mithila region, Warli paintings in Maharashtra and so on.

For UPSC Aspirants

Prelims

2013:

49. Consider the following historical places:

1. Ajanta Caves
2. Lepakshi Temple
3. Sanchi Stupa

Which of the above places is/are also known for mural paintings?

(a) 1 only

(b) 1 and 2 only

© 1, 2 and 3

(d) None

2017:

10. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at:

(a) Ajanta

(b) Badami

© Bagh

(d) Ellora

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Funder UPI: hrndsays@ibl

Writer UPI: mayachh@ibl