Literature Review

Abstract

What are the risks of cotton? Is it better for human health and the environment than plastics and other textiles? Can this crop be just as dangerous as food and skin care products? From just a brief look at the mass amounts of literature on cotton, it is easily found that cotton is an incredibly dirty crop (maybe even the world’s dirtiest), containing large quantities of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers. However, the extent of that issue is much higher than I would have ever expected. Cotton takes up 2.5% of the world’s cultivated land but uses 11% of the world’s pesticides and 24% of the world’s insecticides (Chapagain, 2006). Texas has the largest share of U.S. cotton production at 30%, making the human health impacts of cotton more relevant to Texans (Robinson et al, 2007). While cotton has been a big product since the invention of the cotton gin in 1793, today, in all developed countries, it is being produced more than ever. This is largely due to cotton clothes and fast fashion. 60% of the world’s cotton is used for clothing and, in 2014, consumers bought 60% more clothing than in 2000 but they only kept each garment for half the amount of time, as seen in the graphic below. (McKinsey & Co, 2017).

This review aims to dig deeper into the literature to discover if cotton is harmful to human health and at what stage of production is it most harmful. What can be used instead of something that at once seemed so natural and harmless as cotton? This literature review will be focusing on the human health impacts of cotton. However, it is important to keep in mind that this is just one layer to a big problem. Cotton is harmful in many other ways, environmentally and ethically, but this just makes the search for a better textile alternative all the more pressing.

The Chemicals

More chemical pesticides are used for cotton than any other crop. Pesticides were introduced to control pests and increase agricultural output (Aktar et al, 2009). They have been linked with diseases including asthma, autism, developmental disabilities, obesity, diabetes, birth defects, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer (Owens et al, 2018). Cotton bolls contain pesticides, insecticides (a type of pesticide) and synthetic fertilizers. The use of these chemicals in cotton production is hazardous to human health, especially farm workers. The impact of these pesticides affect animals and humans alike. Many dioxins found in pesticides are endocrine disruptors. This means they take the shape of natural hormones in our body and can cause serious impacts even at a low dose over a long time. These serious impacts include cancerous tumors, birth defects, and developmental disorders. It is not only workers who are being exposed at low doses over a long time, if you wear cotton, you are also being exposed to the chemicals that end up on your clothes from the manufacturing industry. These chemicals include PVC, phthalates, and up to 8,000 other chemicals that are used in the processing of textiles, dyeing, treating, printing and finishing (Hailes, 2019).

Once harvested, the cotton does not continue to have these pesticide residues, other than the chemicals that continue to be present in the water, soil, and air. However, it is important to mention the chemicals associated with cotton that manifest in the manufacturing industries. From coloring the fabrics to finishing clothing, our cotton clothing undergoes very toxic processes. Some of these chemicals include chlorine bleach, formaldehyde, VOCs (volatile organic compounds), PFCs (perfluorinated chemicals), flame retardants, ammonia, heavy metals (including lead, chromium, cadmium), and phalates. These are all used in dyes and printing processes, for shrink and fire resistance, durability, and whitening. People have sacrificed their health for appearance sake and so that their clothes are fire resistant.

Human Health

Air and water pollution are discussed at length in other parts of this literature review. While air and water are obvious environmental pollutants, they directly affect human health considering we both drink water and breath air, which contain all of the chemicals and nutrients present due to the pollution. However, cotton dust is also seen to have detrimental health impacts, especially for those who work with cotton. Cotton dust includes plant matter, fibers, bacteria, fungi, soil, pesticides, non-cotton matter, and other contaminants (Hinson AV et al, 2014). A cross sectional study conducted by the International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine showed that there is an extremely high prevalence of respiratory symptoms and byssinosis (lung disease) among cotton mill workers. This needs to be addressed in policy. Some possibilities are better and safer working conditions for cotton workers, regulations on the chemicals that are allowed to be used in cotton crops, and more public health interventions that bring awareness to the issue at hand.

Another study showed that 61–66% of cotton pickers in the Vehari district of Pakistani Punjab experienced at least one of the following symptoms during picking season: skin problems, headache, cough, flu, fever, eye irritation and sleeplessness (Bakhsh et al, 2016). Kolvea and Schneider (2014) also talk about the monetary cost of these health impacts in the U.S. The health impacts due to working long hours exposed to cotton estimate an economic loss of $17 per acre to public health as a result of pesticide use. When we compare this with how many acres of land cotton uses in the United Sates, a lot of money is being spent on public health due to this use of harmful chemicals. These cotton pickers are exposed to chemicals for 6–8 hours a day and studies have shown that 74% of female cotton pickers are moderately pesticide poisoned. The Environment Foundation of Justice released a report claiming that pesticides found in cotton can prevent the communication of nerve cells. This can lead to impaired memory, severe depression, disruption of the immune system, paralysis and death (EFJ, 2007).

The heath impacts for working farmers is huge, as they are exposed to chemicals in greater length. However, the chemicals people interact with daily from wearing cotton are also real and detrimental. It is even illegal in California to feed livestock leftover cotton pieces, due to the incredibly high amounts of pesticides but are repurposed to make furniture, mattresses, tampons, and cotton balls. This is another huge issue; we are being exposed to cotton that is tainted with chemicals from start to finish in our everyday life. Some researched side effects from dyes alone include reproductive health issues from Alkyphenols which bioaccumulate, cancer from Aniline from red dyes (the most common), liver and lung cancer, degraded immune system, infectious diseases, and birth defects, from Dioxins. Formaldehyde has been found to cause nervous system damage and the heavy metals used in dyes are known carcinogens (Trusted Clothes, 2016). The problem with chemicals that are on our clothing from dyes is compounded by “fast fashion.” Every season people are in search for the next trendy color that is usually not found in nature and requires a new dye.

Stages of Cotton

When discussing the impact of cotton, we cannot simply look at cotton grown in the field but we have to also look at how frequent and far cotton is being transported around the world and what chemicals are being used in the industries that process and manufacture cotton. There are two major stages of cotton production, the agricultural stage and the industrial stage (Chapagain, 2006). In the agricultural stage, fertilizers and pesticides are the biggest concern. Additionally, nitrogen, phosphorus, potash and other minor nutrients are leeched out of the plant root zone and entering ground and surface water. In the industrial stage, the pollution of water as a result of waste flow from cotton processing factories is the main concern. The World Bank sets limits to the extent of effluents (liquid waste that run off into ground water or the sea). These include bleaching, dying, printing, and finishing. As of 1999, dying was the only effluent that was well over the allowed limit set by the World Bank, with bleaching coming close behind (World Bank, 1999). When talking about cotton clothing, this aspect is huge. Almost all of cotton clothes involve dying and bleaching. When we remember just how much clothing Americans go through, this effect is huge. In 2005, 14,563,907 bales of cotton were transported all over the world, and these only include the exports from the U.S. The air pollution from trucks and ships to transport this cotton is massive and not to mention, every bale of cotton is nicely wrapped in plastic, which has dozens of other impacts to human health (Robinson et al, 2007).

Alternatives (Roozt, 2017)

Tencel

Tencel is made from Eucalyptus trees and grows quickly. It only requires half an acre of land per ton of fiber. This is in comparison with the two and a half acres of land that cotton uses per ton of fiber. Additionally, tencel uses much less water than cotton. It only requires 155 gallons of water per pound of fiber whereas cotton uses between 700 to 2,000 gallons.

Hemp

Cotton requires nearly twice as much land as hemp does. However, hemp is illegal to grow in the United States without a permit. Therefore, this options is not as viable right now, although many countries are making the change to legalizing this crop. Hemp is allowed to be imported but then it is crucial to factor in the health impacts to transporting goods.

Bamboo

Bamboo requires little water and no pesticides. This crop is apparently able to be harvested every year after it reaches maturity. It is able to grow in many soil types and is a very durable crop. It is also able to be softened in order to resemble cotton more in appearance and feel. Although it uses harsh chemicals in the manufacturing stage.

Polyester

Petroleum is the base make up of polyester, therefore not making it the best substitute for cotton. As of now polyester and cotton make up 80% of worldwide fiber production. Recycled polyester does require less energy the non-recycled polyester and much less water than cotton. However, this option is not the most environmentally friendly, as it contributes to global warming, and companies are still trying to discover ways to improve this fiber.

Organic Cotton?

If pesticides and insecticides are the biggest detriments of cotton, then organic cotton should be the solution to all our problems. However, this is not the case. Organic cotton, as of now, represents less than 1% of cotton on the market. One foreseeable downside to using organic cotton as an alternative to conventional cotton is that it takes us much more land than regular cotton (3.5 acers of land per ton of fiber compared to 2.5 acres of land per ton of fiber). However, even with organic cotton, GMO-free, and all natural, the clothes we wear still end up with toxic chemicals on them due to the processing in the manufacturing industries.

Patagonia is the perfect example of a company that has made the switch to all organic (Chouinard 1997). As of very early- 1996- they have been using organic cotton for their sporting gear products. Yet, the public opinion is a hard thing to change. Most consumer perceptions about organic products were not changed but people continued to buy Patagonia based on loyalty, fit, style, and brand. Therefore, the question remains, how to change consumer attitudes and opinions about organic crops.

Another alternative to solving the problem of chemicals and pesticides in cotton production is not a fabric but an idea. If Americans didn’t buy into fast fashion, we wouldn’t be using nearly as much cotton. The World Resources Institute estimates that now America is going through 50 cycles of fashion per year, rather than the traditional two cycles (Morgan et al, 2015). If we cut down on the cotton we are using and producing, we will automatically be cutting down on the detrimental health impacts of cotton.

Bibliography

Aktar, M. W., Sengupta, D., & Chowdhury, A. (2009). Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: their benefits and hazards. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 2(1), 1–12. http://doi.org/10.2478/v10102-009-0001-7

Bakhsh, K., Ahmad, N., Kamran, M. A., Hassan, S., Abbas, Q., Saeed, R., & Hashmi, M. S. (2016). Occupational hazards and health cost of women cotton pickers in Pakistani Punjab. BMC Public Health, 16(1), 961. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3635-3

Chapagain, A. K., Hoekstra, A. Y., Savenije, H. H. G., & Gautam, R. (2006). The water footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics, 60(1), 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.027

Chouinard , Y., Brown, M., 1997, Going Organic: Converting Patagonia’s Cotton Product Line, Journal of Industrial Ecology — Wiley Online Library. (n.d.). Retrieved October 22, 2018, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1162/jiec.1997.1.1.117

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McKinsey&Company, (2017), The State of Fashion. Business of Fashion.

Morgan, A., Ross, M., Siegle, L., McCartney, S., Firth, L., Shiva, V., Blickenstaff, D., Life Is My Movie Entertainment (Firm),. (2015). The true cost.

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Robinson, J. R., Park, J. L., & Fuller, S. (2007). Cotton Transportation and Logistics: A Dynamic System. Retrieved from http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/207927/files/2007_7B_CottonTrans_paper.pdf

Roozt. (2017). The Cotton of the Future. Clothing companies are on the hunt for an Eco-Friendly Cotton Substitute.

Trusted Clothes (2016) Dyes and Their Effects on Human Health, Fast Colours and Fast Fashion.

World Bank. (1999). Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook 1998. Toward Cleaner Production. World Bank, Washington, DC