Virtue: A brief history

The concept of Virtue was introduced to us by the classical Greeks. Socrates presented the theories of arete as excellence or virtue, phronesis as practical or moral wisdom and eudaimonia as flourishing or happiness. Later, other great thinkers and philosophers of that period such as Aristotle and Plato gave us the Cardinal Virtues of Temperance, Prudence, Courage and Justice.

All of the foregoing virtues are predicated on human excellence and goodness and high moral character and standards. Marcus Tulles Cicero (106–43 BC), the great Roman orator, philosopher, politician and brilliant legal mind, spent three years in Greece before returning to Rome in his thirties bringing with him the teachings of the Ancients. In Latin it became virtus, thus evolving into Roman philosophy then into Christian theology centuries later presented largely by St. Thomas Aquinas.

The Catholic Church combined the three theological virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity (Love), thus creating the Seven Christian Virtues or Heavenly Virtues. It can be said that the virtues as stated have been reformed and redescribed on occasion though the ages by influential leaders, emperors, popes and prophets.

The lifelong works of two luminaries from ages past still resonate today. They are:

René Descartes (1596–1650) a philosopher and mathematician regarded as the father of modern philosophy and for giving us theses words; “I exist.” And, “I think; therefore I am.” He was the writer of great works. As a youth he studied logic and astronomy, metaphysics and ethics as well as mathematics and music and earned esteem with a degree in law at age 22. He said, “We cannot ever practice any virtue — that is to say, do what our reason tells us we should do — without the satisfaction and pleasure from doing so.” And, “Thus, happiness is a natural product of virtue and can be enjoyed regardless of what fortune brings.”

Other quotes by Descartes:

“It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.”

The greatest minds are capable of the greatest vices as well as the greatest virtues.”

“Everything is self-evident.”

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) despite being born into a devoutly religious family, much of his life’s work centered around establishing reason and intelligence in place of religious influence and authority. He believed that human beings have a moral obligation and that our behaviours should be motivated by the right way and as an act of duty according to a set of rules. He argued that the only absolutely good thing is a good will, and so the critical factor in determining moral behaviour is the will, or the motive of the doing something. This was his Categorical Imperative, his work describing this moral code. He was a great lover of art and nature.

Quotes by Kant:

“Nothing in the world — indeed nothing even beyond the world — can possibly be conceived which could be called good with qualification except a good will.”

“He who is cruel to animals becomes hard also in his dealings with men. We can judge the heart of a man by his treatment of animals.”

“Live your life as though your every act were to become a universal law.”

***

Many faiths around the world aspire to virtuous practices. Buddhism describes the Noble Eightfold Path and Divine States; promoting loving-kindness and hope towards all, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. Daoism encourages personal character, inner strength, integrity, humanity and goodness from its adherents. Hinduism fosters a life of non-violence, self-restraint, inner purity, truthfulness and avoidance of theft and covetness.

In Islam, the foundation of the understanding of virtue was an abiding faith in the teachings of the Quran. Bounty, piety and righteousness and are worthy of spiritual merit or reward. Judaism stresses that obeying the Ten Commandments are essential to a life of virtue as are loving God and obeying his laws. It is said that the Golden Rule was described as far back as the first century by a rabbi.

***

Vice is at the opposite arc of the human behaviour pendulum from virtue and is the failing, immoral, weakness and wickedness in our conduct.

Across our world, though, there is a significant common and shared embrace of virtue amongst many cultures. It is our noble way forward.