Echoes of the Ice Age: Winter Solstice and Mother’s Night
As the days grow shorter and the chill of winter settles in, nature prepares for a celestial event that marks a significant turning point in the seasonal cycle. The winter solstice, which is approaching in the Southern Hemisphere on the 22nd of June, and occurs on the 23rd of December in the Northern Hemisphere, holds great cultural and spiritual significance for many communities around the world.
The word solstice is derived from the Latin sol meaning “sun” and sistere meaning “to stand still.” Due to the Earth being tilted on its axis and its elliptical orbit around the sun, the sun appears to travel the sky from north to south throughout the year. When it reaches its northern or southern-most limit it appears to stand still before reversing its direction. This results in two solstices every year, the summer solstice around the 23rd of December in the Southern Hemisphere, and the 22nd of June in the Northern Hemisphere and conversely, the winter solstice, marking the shortest day and longest night of the year, around the 22nd of June in the Southern Hemisphere and the 23rd of December in the Northern Hemisphere. In many cultures around the world, the winter solstice marks the official beginning of winter.
In today’s article, we will take a closer look at northern and western European traditions for celebrating the winter solstice, including Sámi traditions of the paleolithic Reindeer Mother Cult born from the ice age, as well as Celtic winter solstice celebrations, ancient Roman Saturnalia, and Germanic Modranicht or ‘Mother’s Night’ traditions that still echo within and influence our modern customs. I’ll also share some of the ways I celebrate Winter Solstice and Mother’s Night in my own household.
The Ice Age
Over 2 million years ago, early humans migrated to Europe and adapted to the fluctuating Ice Age climate, marked by large expansions and contractions of ice sheets across different parts of Europe at different times. The Scandinavian Ice Sheet, also known as the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet, was the largest and most significant during this period. It covered much of present-day Scandinavia, including Norway, Sweden, Finland, and parts of Russia. The ice sheet extended southward, covering the Baltic region and had a significant impact on the topography of the area. Other glaciations also occurred in different regions of Europe at different times. The British Isles experienced extensive glaciation, with ice sheets covering large parts of what is now the United Kingdom, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Further south, the Alps were also heavily glaciated. These Alpine glaciers extended across the mountain range, reshaping the valleys, and carving out iconic features such as U-shaped valleys and moraines. Other mountainous regions in Europe, including the Pyrenees and Carpathians, also experienced glaciation at one time or another.
The ice sheets reached their maximum extent during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 26,000 to 19,000 years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. This glacial expansion and contraction influenced the movement and adaptation of early humans in Europe and is known as the Palaeolithic period. Palaeolithic humans, our own species of Homo sapiens as well as Homo neanderthalensis, were well adapted to survive and even thrive in their environment. They were hunter-gatherers, living in small nomadic tribal or family groups spread widely through a sparsely populated landscape. They developed and used stone tools, hunted animals, fished, and gathered edible plants for survival. The availability of food sources varied with the climate and region, but it generally included large game animals like mammoth, reindeer, and bison, as well as smaller animals, fish, shellfish, nuts, and berries.
These early humans had rich cultural and ritual traditions that were deeply interconnected with their environment and survival strategies. Palaeolithic cultures developed intricate belief systems based on polytheistic animism and shamanism¹. They held a deep reverence for nature and relied on their intimate knowledge of the environment for survival. Rituals and ceremonies involving dancing, singing, and storytelling played a significant role in Palaeolithic cultures and were often related to hunting, fertility, and seasonal changes. Cave paintings, rock engravings, and sculptures were created as a means of communication, storytelling, and possibly as part of religious or ritual practices. They often depicted animals, hunting scenes, and symbols associated with fertility and spirituality.
Traditional hunter-gatherer cultures of the Palaeolithic period transitioned to the Neolithic in most of Europe around 10,000 years ago, with the emergence of agriculture, domestication of animals, settled communities, technological advancements, and the development of complex social and religious systems². However, the hunter-gatherer way of life persisted until relatively recently for the people of the northern European tundra, particularly the Evenki of Russia, China, and Mongolia, and the Sámi, who still live in the northern parts of Scandinavia and Russia.
The Sámi: People of the Reindeer
The Sámi, also called Saami, are indigenous peoples from the northern regions of Scandinavia, including Norway, Sweden, Finland, and parts of Russia. They are defined by their Sámi languages and culture, which stems from the larger Uralic language family that includes Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian. These cultures and languages are distinct from the rest of Europe, which mostly belong to the Indo-European language group that originated from a single prehistoric language called Proto-Indo-European. The Uralic language and culture originated from people who were indigenous to the region along the Volga River in what is now Russia. During the Corded Ware culture period, which spanned from around 3000 BCE to 2300 BCE, Uralic people from the Volga region, began to migrate northward, some settled in the frozen tundra of the Arctic and eventually became the Sámi people. Over the centuries, the Sámi developed a deep connection with the Arctic environment and have adapted to survive and thrive in these challenging conditions.
The Sámi have a long history of interaction and trade with neighbouring cultures, including the Norse, the Karelians, and the Russians. However, like many Indigenous communities, they have also experienced periods of marginalisation and cultural assimilation, particularly during colonisation efforts by surrounding nations. Despite these challenges, the Sámi have successfully maintained their cultural identity and traditions. They have a rich oral tradition, passing down stories, legends, and knowledge through generations. Traditional crafts, such as duodji (handicrafts), joik (vocal music), and gákti (traditional clothing), continue to play an important role in Sámi cultural expression. Today, the Sámi people are recognised as an indigenous community with their own parliament in each of the four countries where they reside. Efforts to preserve and revitalize Sámi culture, language, and rights are ongoing, as the Sámi assert their rights to self-determination, land, and natural resources.
The Sámi people are not homogenous, and their way of life varies based on their geographic location. Coastal Sámi communities have traditionally relied on fishing, seafaring, and maritime activities as their primary means of sustenance. On the other hand, the tundra-dwelling Sámi, often referred to as reindeer herders or nomadic herders have centred their livelihoods around the semi-domesticated reindeer.
The tundra-dwelling Sámi were traditionally nomadic hunter-gatherers following the herds of reindeer on their seasonal migrations across the northern landscape. They eventually semi-domesticated their herds to take advantage of reindeer milk and to use them for transportation but they still maintained their nomadic lifestyle. It wasn’t until the 17th Century that the Sámi’s nomadic way of life was restricted and they became reindeer herders in response to political and economic pressures³. Despite these changes, the Sámi have maintained a rich cultural tradition centred around reindeer.⁴ Remnants of Palaeolithic and later Neolithic customs can still be found in their rituals, beliefs, and way of life although some aspects of the Christian religion have recently been incorporated into these belief systems.
The video (3:17 mins) below features the modern practice of reindeer herding.
The next short video (3:02 mins) below documents the life of the Dukha people of Mongolia, the last nomadic reindeer herders in the world. Although they are linguistically and culturally different to the Sámi, their nomadic way of life, centred around migrating reindeer is similar to how the Sámi traditionally lived.
Reindeer Folklore
Reindeer were not only a vital source of food and milk for the Sámi, but they also relied on them for transportation, fur for clothes, sinews for sewing, antlers and bones for tools, weapons, and ritual objects⁵. Female reindeer were particularly revered by the Sámi. They are larger and stronger than the males, and they establish the social hierarchies of the herd, as well as forage and defend their territories. Reindeer mate in autumn and the males shed their antlers at mating time in response to higher levels of testosterone. During the winter months, the pregnant female reindeer develop antlers, which they shed after giving birth in spring or early summer⁶.
Sámi folklore tells of magical reindeer that fly through the night sky. They are also connected to the folklore surrounding the hallucinogenic effects of the Amanita muscaria mushroom, more commonly known as the toadstool mushroom or fly agaric. Emily Buder wrote for The Atlantic (2018)⁷:
Until just a few hundred years ago, the story goes, the indigenous Sami people of Lapland, a wintry region in northern Finland dense with conifer forests, would wait in their houses on the Winter Solstice to be visited by shamans. These shamans would perform healing rituals using the hallucinogenic mushroom Amanita muscaria, a red-and-white toadstool fungus that they considered holy. So holy, in fact, that the shamans dressed up like the mushrooms for their visit. Wearing large red-and-white suits, the shamans would arrive at the front doors of houses and attempt to enter; however, many families were snowed in, and the healers were forced to drop down the chimney. They would act as conduits between the spirit and human world, bringing gifts of introspection that could solve the family’s problems. Upon arrival, the healers were regaled with food. They would leave as they came: on reindeer drawn sleds.
It is said the toadstool mushroom makes people feel like they are flying or ‘journeying’ and is the reason for the name fly agaric. These stories likely captured the imagination of neighbouring European cultures and influenced the popular image of Santa Claus and his flying reindeer, which would have been female with their winter antlers. Reindeer were known to search out and eat Amanita muscaria and their urine was ritually drunk to induce hallucinations without the sickness that accompanies eating the mushroom itself. The shaman also sacrificed themselves in this way, eating the mushroom and suffering the ill effects so that their urine could be drunk by those in attendance, who would be able to ‘journey’ without being sick.
The video (1:59 mins) below, from BBC’s Weird Nature explains the connection between Amanita muscaria and reindeer.
Cult of the Reindeer Mother
Within Sámi folklore, the Reindeer Mother, also known as the Máttaráhkká is a divine and powerful figure associated with fertility, abundance, and the wellbeing of reindeer herds. She is believed to be the protector and caretaker of the reindeer, ensuring their survival and prosperity and thus the survival and prosperity of their human herders. The Reindeer Mother was often depicted with her neck outstretched and her legs splayed out as if running or flying. Her antlers were said to represent the Tree of Life, carrying birds, the sun, the moon, and stars.
Winter solstice held great significance for the Sámi. An ancient Sámi folktale tells the story of the Reindeer Mother, who was said to travel across the southern horizon at winter solstice to bring back to the world the life-giving sun between her antlers. The Reindeer Mother volunteered to sacrifice her own heart and implanted it at the centre of creation so that her heartbeat and blood pulsed life into all creatures, resurrecting them from the frozen dark of winter.
A Sámi winter solstice tradition involves smearing warm butter on doorposts as a sacrifice to Beavi, the Sámi Sun Goddess associated with reindeer, fertility, and motherhood. Beavi gained strength from the sacrificial butter to fly higher and higher into the sky, after the winter solstice. She was often accompanied by her daughter in an enclosure of reindeer antlers, or a sled made of antlers and pulled by reindeer.
The cult of the Reindeer Mother is an ancient spiritual tradition that dates back thousands of years and has survived through the Sámi culture. Reindeer are also considered sacred to the indigenous peoples of Siberia and Mongolia, who share similar beliefs about the reindeer and their connection to the seasonal cycles⁸.
The Deer Cult
Further south, where deer supersede the reindeer populations, the similar belief system of the Deer Cult was more widespread and is still an important part of indigenous cultures such as the Ojibwe and Menominee tribes of North America, where the Deer Clan represents leadership and protection.
In Nordic mythology, particularly in the Prose Edda Gylfaginning, the stag Eikþyrnir chews the leaves of Yggdrasil, the Nordic sacred tree, while water drips from the antlers forming the numerous rivers throughout the nine worlds of the Norse cosmos. The name, Eikþyrnir, is a compound word meaning ‘oak-thorn,’ a fitting description of stag horns. The Eddic poems Grímnismál and Gyflaginning also mention four stags who dwell within the sacred tree of Yggdrasil and feed on its leaves, their horns creating the tree’s crown of antlers.
In Lithuania and Latvia, the sun goddess Saule was said to fly across the heavens at the winter solstice in a sleigh pulled by horned reindeer, throwing beads of amber and apples down through people’s chimneys. Rohanitsa, Ukraine’s winter goddess, was frequently depicted with antlers growing out of her head.
The Deer Cult is also important in Celtic folklore, particularly in Scotland and Ireland⁹. In Celtic myth and folklore, the deer symbolises strength, agility, and wisdom. In a mythic story from Ireland, the hero Fionn Mac Cumhail chases a magical deer that leads him to the “Otherworld”, a mystical realm beyond the physical world. Deer, particularly the ‘White Stag’ appears in medieval folktales such as the Arthurian legends. The deer is also associated with Cernunnos, the Celtic god of fertility, wealth, and the underworld who is depicted with antlers on his head. In some Celtic traditions, it is believed the souls of the dead take the form of a white deer and roam the forests.
Cailleach, who we met in the previous article on The Winter Queens, is often associated with deer. She is sometimes depicted as a shapeshifter, who can transform into a deer or she is accompanied by a herd of deer. There are many folktales telling of her animosity towards hunters who disrespect the laws of nature, especially those who try to poach her precious herd of deer.
Deer are also connected to the idea of sovereignty, the role of women in sanctioning male sovereignty over the land and the importance of women’s right to sovereignty and her own will in ancient Celtic beliefs. An echo of this can be found in an old English nursery rhyme. Hart is an old English term for a male deer.
The Sámi people and their rich traditions centred around reindeer have undeniably influenced global folklore, from the ancient archetypal Reindeer Mother who evolved into the Deer Mother, to the beloved figure of Santa Claus. With their deep connection to reindeer herding and the Arctic landscape, the Sámi have contributed to the mythos of Santa’s sleigh being pulled by these majestic creatures. The Sami’s cultural practices and beliefs, rooted in the pristine Arctic environment, continue to evoke echoes of the ice age.
Winter Solstice Traditions in Europe
For the ancient Celts, Romans and Germanic peoples, the winter solstice was a time of gathering together and sharing abundance with families and communities by enjoying elaborate feasts, drinking, festivities, and merriment. The video (9:23 mins) below from the World History Encyclopedia explains some of these traditions.
Celtic Winter Solstice Celebrations
The return of the sun was a central theme in Celtic winter solstice celebrations. Ancient sites, many aligned with the solstice sunrise were of particular importance, such as Stonehenge in England, in Ireland at Newgrange, the Hill of Tara and Loughcrew in Meath, Knockroe Passage Tomb in Kilkenny, and Carrowkeel in Sligo, and in Scotland at the Maeshowe Cairn in Orkney.
These sites were erected by people from a culture even older than the Celts, were believed to hold mystical energies and were used for rituals and ceremonies to honour the rebirth of the sun. They are still used in the present day as the focus of winter solstice celebrations for modern pagan groups.
Many Celtic myths and folktales relate to the winter solstice, and we have already explored some of these in the previous article The First Day of Winter: Holle’s Day, Winter Archetypes and the Art of Hygge. Another winter solstice folktale from Ireland and Scotland tells the story of Lugh and the Long Night¹⁰. Lugh is known as a skilled warrior, a master of many crafts, and a god associated with light, knowledge, leadership and first harvest, or the harvest of grains, called Lughnasadh. He fights against the darkness of winter, sometimes represented by Cailleach at the winter solstice. Lugh uses his wit, strength, and magical abilities to overcome the forces of darkness and bring light back to the world. It was believed that his victory marked the turning point of the winter solstice, when days would gradually become longer, and the power of darkness would wane.
More modern folktales about the rebirth of the sun include the story of the battle between the Oak King and the Holly King, or the Oak King and the Cailleach, as well as the legend of the mistletoe. We will delve further into the story of the Oak King, Holly King and mistletoe in an upcoming article.
As with the autumn and spring equinoxes, the winter solstice was seen as a liminal time when the veil between the worlds was thin, allowing for glimpses into the future and spiritual insights. Various forms of divination and fortune-telling practices were employed during this time, such as scrying, dream interpretation, and the casting of runes or Ogham sticks.
In some Celtic regions, processions and festivals were held during the winter solstice. People would gather, often wearing masks or costumes, and parade through villages and sacred sites, singing, dancing, and playing music. These lively celebrations were believed to chase away the darkness and bring blessings for the year ahead. We will explore these traditions of wassailing, and their evolution into carolling in an upcoming article.
Ancient Celts regarded hospitality as a sacred duty, especially during winter solstice gatherings, as it was believed that by opening their doors and generously sharing their blessings, people invited good fortune into their lives. Celtic traditions surrounding the winter solstice bear similarities to the Scandinavian Yule festivities and predate the Christian celebration of Christmas in the northern hemisphere.
While the Jutes in Britain, led by the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelbert of Kent, embraced Christianity around 595 AD and eventually converted entirely by 850 AD, the Celtic peoples of Wales, Ireland, and Scotland in the north and west steadfastly clung to their native customs and beliefs. Many old winter solstice customs were adapted and assimilated into the Christian traditions of Christmas. However, a few of these Celtic traditions have endured through the ages, including decorating the inside of homes with evergreen plants. An upcoming article will explore the meaning and significance of these plants during the Winter Solstice.
A revival of old winter solstice traditions is occurring in the Celtic lands of Europe. Winter Solstice celebrations at ancient ceremonial sites are becoming more popular and well attended, as are Winter Solstice processions through towns and city centres. In Wales, groups seeking to revive and reconstruct Celtic spirituality and customs have named the celebration at winter solstice Alban Arthan, to differentiate it from the Christian celebration of Christmas. It is derived from Welsh meaning ‘Light of Winter’ or ‘Light of Arthur’ and involves familiar Christmas traditions and practices, without religious overtones, and given meaning through old folklore of the region.
Sláinte chuig an gheimhreadh!
Traditional Irish toast meaning “cheers to winter!”
Ancient Roman Saturnalia
After the Romans conquered Western Europe, they introduced their own winter solstice celebration of Saturnalia, which merged with local traditions. Saturnalia, named after the Roman god Saturnus, was a month-long festival that began on December 17 and reached its climax on December 25 with Sol Invictus, the ‘Birthday of the Unconquered Sun.’ This festive period culminated with the Kalends on January 1, marking the start of the new year. Romans adorned their homes and public buildings with evergreens and bright lights, and the streets came alive with processions and gift exchanges.
During Saturnalia, social norms were turned upside down, and revelry reigned. A mock ruler or Master of the Revels, also called the Lord of Misrule presided over the feasting, with masters serving their servants and normally prohibited activities like gambling becoming permissible. People dressed in animal skins or gender-swapped their clothes. The festivities also included special events, such as Juvenilia a festival dedicated to children.
Amidst these weeks of celebration, a particular day was set aside to honour the sun, whose annual crisis at the winter solstice was closely associated with these winter festivities. This day, known as the Sol Invictus, Day of the Birth of the Unconquered Sun, held great significance in the Mithraic religion, one of the influential mystery religions of the Roman Empire. Mithraism, along with the more public cult of Deus Sol Invictus, competed with Christianity for followers in the late Roman Empire. Interestingly, when the Christian church eventually decided to celebrate the birth of Christ, they chose December 25 as the date, perhaps in acknowledgment of the existing influence of Mithraism and Sol Invictus.
The merging of Roman traditions with local customs during the winter solstice period played a significant role in shaping the celebrations and festivities we observe today at Christmas. We will learn more about the origins of Christmas in the next article.
Winter Solstice Traditions of the Germanic Peoples
The Germanic peoples, including the ancient Germanic tribes and later the Norse and Anglo-Saxon cultures, had rich and vibrant traditions surrounding the winter solstice. One prominent tradition was the celebration of Yule, a festival lasting several weeks that marked the turning point of the year. We will explore many of the Yule traditions in future articles for the month of July. For now, let’s delve into the celebration of Modranicht.
Anglo-Saxons brought their seasonal customs to Britain in a migration that started in the 5th century CE. One of these was Modranicht, or Mother’s Night, which was celebrated on the night of December 24 or 25 and was dedicated to honouring and invoking maternal ancestral spirits and goddesses. During Modranicht, people would gather and participate in various rituals and ceremonies to honour their ancestral mothers and seek blessings for the coming year. It was a time of reflection, remembrance and gratitude for the women who came before them. There is limited surviving information about the specifics of the celebration. However, it is believed that offerings were made to ancestral mothers, prayers were recited, and fires were lit to symbolise warmth and protection.
In 725AD, Northumbrian monk Bede Venerablis wrote about Modranicht in his historical treatise, De temprum ratione (English - The Reckoning of Time):
The ancient peoples of the Angli began the year on the 25th of December when we now celebrate the birthday of the Lord; and the very night which is now so holy to us, they called in their tongue “modranecht,” that is, the mother’s night, by reason we suspect of the ceremonies which in that night-long vigil they performed.
The celebration of Modranicht may be connected to the worship of the Matronae in the regions of Germania and Gaul during the Roman period, reaching its height during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. They are often depicted as a group of three goddesses standing or sitting side by side, holding various objects and symbols associated with life, fertility, childhood, motherhood, protection, and prosperity. These symbols included items such as cornucopias, baskets of fruits, and bread, or they could be depicted holding infants or baby animals. Depictions of the Matronae can be found on stone carvings, altars, and other religious artefacts mainly in the Rhineland region of modern-day Germany, particularly along the river valleys of the Moselle and Rhine. Other significant concentrations of Matronae dedications have been found in Gaul, particularly in the areas corresponding to modern-day France and Luxembourg.
The significance and specific attributes of individual Matronae varied from one region to another, reflecting local customs and traditions. The Matronae were often associated with specific localities and their names frequently included the names of specific tribes or places. For example, the Matronae Aufaniae were worshipped in the Aufanianum region of modern-day Germany.
The Germanic Modranicht, may be related to the Nordic celebration of dísablót. The dísir were female supernatural beings associated with fate, ancestry, and protective spirits. They were often regarded as guardian spirits of particular families or lineages and were publicly venerated during the first three days of the winter season, called Winter Nights. Winter Nights or vetr-naetr in Old Icelandic, was also the time for a lesser-known and private ritual sacrifice that took place in individual households. The alfablót was led by women and the usually hospitable Norse barred their doors against strangers during this night. Dísablót and alfablót will be explored in more detail closer to the time of Samhain at the end of the seasonal year.
The winter solstice was a significant time for various ancient cultures, each with its own unique traditions. These diverse traditions all emphasised the importance of community, feasting, and the symbolic elements of light, renewal, and abundance during the darkest time and the longest night of the year.
Celebration Inspiration
As winter solstice marks the shortest day and longest night of the year so I like to add to my silvery winter-themed decorations by putting up gold decorations to represent the sun. I also display reindeer ornaments and images in a nod to the ancient Sámi Reindeer Mother and to represent my female ancestors for Modranicht.
If you are particularly connected to your Celtic heritage or if you're celebrating Christmas in the Northern Hemisphere, you might like to finish decking the halls with conifer branches, pinecones, holly, ivy, or mistletoe. The symbology, history and traditions of these plants will be explored in a future article.
I prefer to mark the Nordic celebration of Yule at midwinter, the 15th or so of July in Australia, so I hold off decking the halls until Lussinatte and the first day of Yule on the 1st of July. Because my main winter celebration involves a large midwinter Yule party, with all the trimmings, my Winter Solstice dinner is a more personal and quiet affair, just for family and sometimes close friends. I’ll post links to recipes and photos of my Winter Solstice celebrations in an article on the week of the solstice.
Next Week
I hope you enjoyed today’s article about the Winter Solstice and Mother’s Night. Next week we’ll explore the most famous of all winter solstice celebrations… the origins of Christmas. In the meantime:
Sláinte chuig an gheimhreadh!
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¹ Little, A. et al (2016). Technological Analysis of the World’s Earliest Shamanic Costume: A Multi-Scalar, Experimental Study of a Red Deer Headdress from the Early Holocene Site of Star Carr, North Yorkshire, UK. PLoS ONE. Link here.
² Arctic Religions: An Overview. Encyclopedia.com
³ a) Foster, J. Reindeer Herding in Norway, Sami Culture, University of Texas, b) Samuelson, F. The Sámi People: Pastoralism vs. Agriculture, Sami Culture, University of Texas, c) Tamborra, V. (2022). The Sami, the People of the Ice Lands. InsideOver.
⁴ Benko, J. (2011). Sami: The People Who Walk With Reindeer. National Geographic Magazine.
⁵ a) Mykhailova, N. (2006). The Cult of the Deer and “Shamans” in the Deer Hunting Societies. Archaeologica Baltica. b) Mykhailova, N. (2016). Shaman — Hunter — Deer. Andoranten.
⁶ Roberts, F. (2017). Wait …Was Santa a Female Shaman?: The Deer Mother and The Christmas Witch. The Overcast.
⁷ Bruder, E. (2023). ‘Santa Is a Psychedelic Mushroom’: A Theory of Shamans, Amanita Muscaria, and Flying Reindeer. The Atlantic.
⁸ Jacobson, F. (1992). The Deer Goddess of Ancient Siberia: A Study in the Ecology of Belief. Numen Book Series, Vol. 55. Brill.
⁹ McKay, J. (1932). The Deer-Cult and the Deer-Goddess Cult of the Ancient Caledonians. Folklore. Vol 43, №2.
¹⁰ Notable sources of this story include the Irish Mythological Cycle and medieval manuscripts such as the Lebor Gabala Erebb (The Book of Invasions) and the Tain Bo Cuailnge (The Cattle Raid of Cooley).
