Danmei, a Problematic Escape from the Patriarchal Society

Ideologies like “why does the world still need women,” “male couples are the only form of true love,” and “real world gays are disgusting” are constantly circulating on the Chinese internet. At the first glance, it is difficult to connect these highly biased gender comments, yet they are all from the same population — fans of Danmei, or Boys’ Love (BL) literature. Many fans even imagine two male characters from a heterosexual story as a couple, asserting that the female protagonists are “interfering the male couples’ relationship” (Pan). Although BL fans claim they appreciate the equal power dynamics between the protagonists, Danmei enhances a Chinese patriarchal gender hierarchy, because it reduces confidence in women and misleads the representation of the LGBTQ+ population. To truly improve women’s confidence, I propose “gender exchange” fiction as a possible compromise. When a male’s spirit enters a female’s body by accident or vice versa, readers can discover gender biases while still reading about the equally powerful relationships. Additionally, including realistic struggles of homosexual population in BL is likely to guide straight female fans away from the imagined bubble, which leaves more room for LGBTQ+ narratives.

Originating from Japan in the 1970s, Boys’ Love literature, or Danmei (耽美) in Chinese, is a genre that depicts a fantastically beautiful romance between two male characters. Danmei’s original meaning is “the worship and pursuit of aesthetic beauty,” through which readers can appreciate the physical attractiveness of a male couple and gain voyeuristic pleasure (Zhang, 249). Interestingly, BL fans named themselves with the term Fujoshi, or the “rotten girls,” to show their rebellion to the general patriarchal world. When Chinese fans created the first BL online forum in 1999, Danmei literature started to flourish in Mainland China. One of the biggest websites, Jinjiang Literature City, has amassed 7 million registered users and over 500,000 stories. The large audience group fostered adaptations of Danmei into Chinese TV shows, such as Guardian (2018), The Untamed (2019), and Word of Honor (2021), which had billions of views and broad international distribution.

The popularity of homosexual fantasies in China seems to contradict the problematic gender view of “rotten girls.” If many fans are not familiar with homosexuality, or even homophobia, how could Boys’ Love become a Chinese cultural phenomenon? Indeed, the relationship in Danmei is a projection of heterosexual romance into male bodies. Writers feminized the male protagonists for women to be able to easily project themselves into the characters and experience an equal romance with a male partner. The “flower boys” usually have soft skin, peach eyes (桃花眼), and a slender waist, which corresponds to the mainstream beauty standard for Chinese women; many also have feminine facial features and shorter statures than average Chinese males, so that readers could comfortably imagine themselves without worrying about being too masculine. In other words, Danmei’s target audience has always been heterosexual female readers.

The feminized males are the byproduct of patriarchal suppression. Women consume Danmei because they have not yet escaped the female’s inferiority in mainstream heterosexual romance thanks to the manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance. In China, the patriarchy succeeds through Confucian concepts of filial piety, a theory that focused on preserving the traditional role of the father as the primary leader and decision-maker of the family. According to Laura Mulvey, “in society ordered by sexual imbalance…women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness” (364). This implies that women, when reading literature or consuming media, learn to see themselves through the male gaze and have also subconsciously normalized men’s expectations of women. Thus, even female fantasy authors cannot avoid the male gaze. In Chinese mainstream heterosexual literature, most women are economically and socially inferior to men. Instead of empowering themselves, female protagonists count on men to achieve their goals. They compete to gain the male protagonist’s attention or become troublemakers to ultimately prove men’s necessity of dominance. The few powerful women in the stories are villains and later defeated by male characters.

As a result, female readers have turned to a “Danmei” utopia where they can consume an imagined “equally powerful relationship” and make no sacrifice to their family. “Protagonists are mostly beautiful, strong, independent, and wise. Both Gong (the attacker, or ‘top’) and Shou (the receiver, or ‘bottom’) are equally powerful so that they can pair up to achieve success in career and romantic life” (Cong). This is what heterosexual women are looking for: a partnership where couples can overcome challenges as a team. The authors will often purposely weaken the homosexual nature of the characters to instead focus on the chemistry between two attractive individuals who happen to be male, which leaves plenty of room for heterosexual imaginings. Yoshida and Kei claim “if females project into Shou, they could directly relate to the ‘feminized’ male and not worry about having children or being hurt. If females imagine themselves into Gong, they gained a penis, which provides more sexual possibilities without social judgments” (66). Female readers, when dating the imagined lover in the Danmei utopia, have no worries about gender restrictions such as reproduction or family sacrifice. Same-sex bodies eliminate the patriarchal gender hierarchy and open up possibilities to experiment with the power dynamics of relationships.

The problem is, however, that Danmei reduces gender confidence among female readers, because equality between protagonists is solely based on the elimination of female identities. Kaoru Kurimoto asserts that “rotten girls” are “those who are significantly uncomfortable with their own gender identity, so they do not feel safe as being females” (25). Although it may be extreme to pathologize rotten girls, Danmei actually supports the institutionalized inferiority of females. Women are not hopeful about restructuring the gender hierarchy, so they escape the restrictions by changing to a superior male identity. Their own representation in literature, and society, has not improved at all. Male protagonists are beautiful and powerful, whereas female characters are still marginalized, either as unsuccessful romantic rivals or unnamed background characters (Yang & Xu, 170). It may be that women achieve “equality” through projection, but it is based on the patriarchal default of gender norms. In other words, Danmei’s prevalence demonstrates feminist awareness among Chinese, but it fails to address gender confidence under the strict patriarchal institution.

Even worse, the ideal heterosexual imagination of same-sex relationships is misleading readers’ perception of the LGBTQ+ population. BL fans could become significantly uncomfortable when they observe anything not “pretty” among marginalized groups which is unlike the Danmei relationship, the evenly matched love between two pretty boys. In reality, homosexual population can be young or old, strong or weak, beautiful or unattractive, who “not only face the identity crisis but also endure the family and social pressure” (Cong). This process is usually awkward, lonely, and painful, which contradicts the idealized love depicted in Danmei. Readers, therefore, may harshly judge the gay population and even become homophobic. One “rotten girl” stated frankly that “gay people in China really disappoint me… they have serious issues with promiscuity and hook-ups or else conceal their sexual orientation for the purpose of marrying a straight woman” (Zhang, 256). Many even express the sentiment that “they [homosexual people] are ugly so they should be ashamed of being gay” (Pan). Since the homosexual relationship is already sacred and perfect in readers’ imagination, they fight against any variation, which is harmful to the real homosexual population in China.

The Chinese government has tried to shift Danmei fans back to heterosexual romance by terminating Danmei TV dramas’ local production. Beijing’s National Radio and Television Administration published an announcement to inspect the fields of online film and television dramas, short videos, and live streaming and create a “healthy and clean internet environment for users” (Wu). It indicates the government’s determination to tamp down fan bases and investors who have capitalized on BL cultures. However, Chinese censorship lost its effectiveness this time. The termination from a male-dominant government may have enhanced some women’s hopelessness about gender equality, causing them to move further towards Danmei and consume fictional relationships. Multiple online streaming services bought the copyright of foreign BL dramas such as Semantic Error (2022) from South Korea and KinnPorshe (2022) from Thailand to stream on their international platform. BL fans use VPNs to cross the Internet firewall and keep supporting their loves. The ineffective policy proves that merely eliminating Danmei literature and TV productions, without addressing gender inequality, only increases readers’ rebellion.

One alternative fantasy which could potentially improve readers’ awareness of patriarchal norms is the “gender exchange” genre. When a male’s spirit enters a female’s body (and vice versa), readers can challenge unconscious gender biases towards women while encountering a heterosexual romance. The “gender exchange” genre originates from Japanese ACG (Animation, Comic, Game) culture. Unlike someone transgender who actively changes their identity, the set-up occurs when one character accidentally switches their gender to the opposite (in a binary world). In my opinion, this “gender exchange” fantasy is an improved version of Danmei. For instance, in the web novel Go Princess Go (太子妃升职记), a Chinese adaption of “gender exchange,” male protagonist Zhang Peng’s spirit accidentally went into the body of a princess who lived a thousand years ago, when one man could have multiple wives. The main character used to be a playboy, but he learns to understand women’s struggles and the potential consequences of reproduction. He goes on to actively combat gender norms and date the prince. There are no uneven power dynamics between the two protagonists, as their spirits are the same sex and have gone through similar patriarchal manifestations. However, if women project themselves into the female body (male spirit), she could observe women’s to-be-looked-at-ness when the male’s spirit behaves out of box. Likewise, if a man projects himself to the male body (female spirit), he may be aware of the privilege he holds in a patriarchal society. I believe the evenly powerful spirit is acceptable for Chinese BL fans and could bring more information about gender hierarchy to readers in general. TV production companies, instead of importing international BL dramas, could also start to produce “gender exchange” screenplays so that the discussion could quickly reach the public.

However, promoting “gender exchange” alone is not enough. Authors should try to write more realistic homosexual fantasies without overly feminized projections. By reducing the “prettiness” of male bodies and their relationships, writers can compose more realistic homosexual representations in Danmei. In addition, some “rotten girls” may be less comfortable projecting themselves in updated Danmei and ultimately seek out other literature genres to achieve equality. The struggle could be surrounding disagreements like what Molly experienced from the American lesbian novel the Rubyfruit Jungle (2015); it could be the self-questioning from the Amateur (2015); it could even shed light on the domestic violence from In the Dream House (2009). Gradually, Danmei would become a more homosexual-friendly genre, converting to a fantastical romance that has a more realistic representation of women and LGBTQIA+ people. Extreme “rotten girls” are likely to leave this pretty bubble and start to reflect on gender biases towards women in the “gender exchange” genre.

The step forward could still be banned by the government since encouraging women to be independent contradicts the three-child policy implemented in May 2021. “Media should reduce or eliminate the report of ‘independent women’ and ‘DINK’(Double Income No Kids) that contradicts Chinese mainstream values…and advocate for perfect family and birth”(Xu). Fortunately, web novels have more freedom in their publication methods. Writers are anonymous, making them more difficult to regulate than traditional novels. Even under strict patriarchal policies, there is still hope.

Danmei should not be a battlefield between women and queer people because in the end, the only winner is the patriarchy. Authors should unite to combat the various biases, stereotypes, and misunderstandings being imposed upon the marginalized identities, to both improve women’s confidence and people’s acceptance towards LGBTQ+ population through gender exchange.

Works Cited

Cong, Yi. “《陈情令》热播的背后，耽美怎样影响性别文化？” Narada Foundation, 19 Sep. 2019. http://www.naradafoundation.org/content/6604

Kurimoto, Kaoru. コミュニケーション不全症候群. 筑摩書房, 1995

Mulvey, Laura, and Scott MacKenzie. “VISUAL PLEASURE AND NARRATIVE CINEMA (UK, 1975).” Film Manifestos and Global Cinema Cultures: A Critical Anthology, 1st ed., University of California Press, 2014, pp. 359–370, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt5vk01n.109.

Pan, Wenjie. “为何腐女也厌女，男同也恐同？从‘肖战’女化争议谈起.”Jiemian News, 7 Mar. 2020. https://www.jiemian.com/article/4071086.html

Wu, Wenzhuo. “Will China’s Ban on ‘Boys’ Love’ Programs Hurt Luxury?” Jing Daily, 10 Jan. 2022. https://jingdaily.com/china-ban-boys-love-programs/

Xu, Yanhong. “如何破解适龄人群不婚不育难题？人大代表这样说.” Tencent, 19 Apr. 2022. https://xw.qq.com/cmsid/20220418A0BK2200

Yang, Ling & Yanrui Xu. “网络女性写作中的酷儿文本与性别化想象.” 文化研究, vol. 2, 2014. pp.166–179. http://221.8.56.50:8093/asset/detail.aspx?id=203164995568

Yoshida, Shiori & Bunya Kei. “腐女子と夢女子の立ち位置の相違.” 福岡女学院大学紀, no. 24, 2014. pp.61–81. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1050845762531930240

Zhang, Chunyu. “Loving Boys Twice as Much: Chinese Women’s Paradoxical Fandom of ‘Boys’ Love” Fiction.” Women’s Studies in Communication, vol. 39, no. 3, 2016. pp. 249–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2016.1190806