The Silent Languages of India

Our biological diversity is under enormous threat as we have eradicated species, eroded natural habitat, and destroyed the natural equilibrium at a speed so great that nature cannot catch up. However, as we work towards restoring the natural world, we often neglect language and culture, demarcating them differently because they are man-made. Whether it be climate change, globalization, or urbanization, rampant changes in the environment make people give up their traditional ways of life, move to cities, abandon their vernacular, and pick up languages that they deem will provide their children with social and economic mobility, and hence a better future.

However, the speed at which people are shifting from their heritage language to a significant language — a process termed language shift — is occurring at an unprecedented and rather alarming rate. It is estimated that half of the 7000 languages spoken across the globe will have fallen silent by the end of this century, at the sheer speed of dinosaurs’ demise. These 7000 languages are a testament to the human mind’s creativity, yet surprisingly half the world’s population speaks only 50 languages, while the other half speak the remainder 6950. This is relevant because the vanishing of these unwritten languages’ represents a loss of history, knowledge, and human experience. Our theories of universality and variability, our cognition and perception are based on a tiny subset of languages. Hence, we do not have a complete understanding of the world, one that can only be obtained through the preservation of endangered languages, and by extension, the knowledge and experiences they imbibe.

India is a land of immense cultural, geographic, and linguistic diversity, where after every 10 kilometers, one can witness a different language, a different set of beliefs, and a different way of life. The 1961 census in India recorded 1652 mother tongues, while the 1971 census recognized a sparing 808, followed by the 2010 People’s Linguistic Survey of India, which recorded 780 languages, 197 out of which are considered endangered (2). In a country that has historically relied on oral tradition for transmission of knowledge, the languages of several tribal communities have not been written or recorded and are hence vanishing before our eyes. According to new media specialist Osama Manzar, modern digitization must be harnessed for the effective preservation of Indian endangered languages. Manzar believes that culture, tradition, and history are embedded in language, and he argues that they can be preserved through “audio-visual formats” (1), which eliminate the need for a language script. Linguists from National Geographic’s Enduring Voices project have already created talking dictionaries that contain “over 24,000 audio recordings of native speakers” — many of whom are the last speakers of their language — “pronouncing words and sentences” (1) to document their languages. Manzar suggests that such efforts should be replicated in India and asserts that the audio-visual format is particularly beneficial as it “allows researchers to understand a language even if they do not know the script” (1). Digital documentation is effective in the long run as it preserves a language far beyond the lives of its speakers and also allows people from all over the world to access the knowledge and history that it encompasses. While Manzar’s solution is sustainable and effective in an era of technology, it might not be able to document languages at the pace that they are becoming extinct due to lack of resources and government funding. Manzar’s solution might boost the longevity of unwritten languages, but it cannot provide them with recognition.

The Government of India only recognizes 122 languages, a staggering 15% of the nation’s linguistic wealth, which leads to a lack of funding to preserve the remaining 658. The government excludes languages without a script, as well as those with less than 10,000 speakers, a demonstration of apathy is not new to India but rather stems from colonial influence. In India, the British administration passed several discriminatory laws, one of which was the Criminal Tribes Act 1871, which “notified about 150 tribes around India as criminals.” Fearing reprisals from the imperialists, members of these groups turned wary of speaking their languages in an attempt to conceal their identity and avoid persecution. According to Professor of Law at Sai University, Abhishek Chakravarty, this “led to many of them losing their mother tongue” (2) as instead, they adopted the dominant language of their regions. Chakravarty explains that language endangerment is often the product of such power differentials and the discrimination that ensues. Members of these tribal communities abandoned their languages as a response to overt discrimination, and over time these communities have internalized the benefits of aligning with the dominant discourse. Keeping the colonial context in mind, Chakravarty argues that Indian laws and their practical implementation play a vital role in preserving India’s linguistic heritage. Although India’s constitution, specifically Article 29(1) “confers rights to protect one’s own language,” and Article 30 “confers rights to minorities to establish and administer educational institutions,” they fail to include linguistic minorities due to the non-recognition of languages with less than 10,000 speakers, and the neutering of oral languages (2). These articles certainly recognize the importance of language and minorities, but Chakravorty proposes that they need to be reformed, granting greater recognition to India’s oral tradition and the tiny language groups it encompasses. Chakravarty claims that inclusion of minority language groups can also be achieved through greater awareness, specifically through research on endangered languages under the National Research Foundation, as well as “policy changes including strengthening the Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages of India Scheme” (2). Chakravarty also highlights that endangered languages should be introduced as a subject in schools, “especially in areas where members of the community speaking such languages reside” (2). Teachers should also be hired from these areas to ensure that linguistic heritage is passed down with authenticity.

Not only did the British administration endanger tribal languages through adverse laws, but they also threatened dominant native tongues by the imposition of The English Education Act of 1835, which declared English as the language of education, commerce, and law. By educating only certain strata of Indians in English, the British Administration employed English as a tool of linguistic imperialism, leading to the dilution of rich Indian culture and identity. The distortion of class dynamics, the effects of which are enhanced by 19th-century globalization. With the influx of Western technology, music, cinema, and culture, the English language is dominating the interest of India’s youth as they deem it a way to connect with Western culture. According to Alison Barrett, British Council’s regional director of Society in East Asia, English’s overbearing presence as the language of commerce and law is one of the primary causes of India’s language extinction crisis. Increasingly, Indian parents are moving their children away from vernacular medium schools and enrolling them in English medium schools because they perceive English to be a language of upward mobility and opportunity. Their concern is certainly not unwarranted as approximately “47% of Indian graduates are deemed unemployable solely due to their poor spoken English skills and test scores” (3). Since English is becoming a barrier for recruitment for many young Indians, Barret suggests that a possible solution would be to identify “how much English is needed” and “what kind of English is needed” (3) and then employ the language as a skill or in an instrumental way to access economic gain. While Barret is not arguing against English education, she states that it is imperative to alarm parents and students of “the potential risks” (2), deeming English superior, as such a mentality fails to valorize the vernacular. Osama Manzar delves a step deeper and suggests that there needs to be reform in how people view language. He argues that Indians must “treat language as culture” instead of simply a tool used for progress. Manzar claims that English’s ubiquity is temporary, as soon it will become a method of instruction or skill in the job market solely. He suggests that only by learning regional languages can India’s youth enhance their creativity, cognition, and understanding of India’s art, history, and literature.

As India establishes its presence in the global market and adapts to global trends and technologies, it is incredibly relevant now more than ever that it retains its own identity. In the age of technology and information, Osama Manzar’s solution to digitally document endangered languages is undoubtedly the most accessible, but perhaps not the most effective. To revive many endangered languages, I believe that Abhishek Chakravarty’s top-down approach will be most effective. Chakravarty proposes change at the institutional level, in particular at the educational and judicial level. By expanding the legal definition of minority languages to include unwritten languages and communities smaller than 10,000, these languages will receive recognition and the legal right to preserve their linguistic history. It is also important to acknowledge that English’s pervasiveness in India is not solely a result of globalization but also systematic implementation under the British Administration. The ideology of western supremacy persists in India, one that is difficult to erase at the surface level. As Manzar and Barret propose, Indians must employ English as a skill or tool and treat the vernacular as they treat their culture and tradition, as only then can regional endangered languages be preserved.

Bibliography

1. Manzar, Osama. “How Digital Tools Can Help in the Preservation of Our Languages.” Mint, Apr 26. 2018.
2. Chakravarty, Abhishek. “Saving India’s Endangered Languages in Light of National Education Policy, 2020.” Edited by Akshita Tiwary, Saving India’s Endangered Languages in Light of National Education Policy 2020, Jurist Legal News and Commentary, Aug 21, 2020.
3. Is India ignoring its language diversity? NDTV. Jul 19. 2016.