How Humor Works

Solving the mystery of what makes something funny

Illustration by Sasha Borislow

Humor is a significant part of my life. Not a day goes by that I don’t consume or (try to) produce something funny. A few years ago, I developed an intense curiosity about how it worked. What exactly is it that causes us to find something funny? Many things that we find enjoyable don’t provoke a “that’s funny” response in us, so what makes humor unique? I initially assumed it would be easy to find the answer but was amazed to learn that a definitive one doesn’t exist.

It turns out that none of the standard theories are widely accepted. Evidently this is because most of them only apply to some types of humor or describe something that only accompanies humor, and the rest are too broad or vague to be meaningful. This was highly intriguing to me. How could there be such a gap in knowledge about something so ubiquitous in all our lives and essential to who we are? I’m not an academic, but I felt compelled to take matters into my own hands and search for the solution. And after extensive reading, research, observation, and discussion, I think I might have found it.

How will we know if we’ve successfully located the precise thing that triggers “funny”? We’ll know it if we can conclusively say that humor always has this thing, and this thing always has humor (i.e., the thing is both necessary and sufficient for humor to happen). Before presenting my theory, I’ll briefly discuss some of the leading explanations and why they are unsuccessful in identifying this thing we instinctively recognize as funny.

One fact that is well established is that humor happens in our minds. We experience it as a result of perceiving (mentally interpreting) something a certain way. Many people claim that what we find funny is something we perceive as surprising. This is easily refuted, though, because clearly there are examples of things we find surprising but not at all funny, and things we find funny but not at all surprising. Regarding the latter, which may not be as obvious as the former, we can all probably think of times we’ve laughed at a movie or TV show we’ve seen before, even when we knew the joke was coming. If we’re still laughing in the absence of surprise, there must be something else provoking it.

Surprise is actually one of many humor enhancers, which are things that can boost our enjoyment of humor but are not essential to it. They are the feelings, emotions, and qualities that coexist with humor. Because they accompany it and are frequently prominent, enhancers are often mistaken for humor itself. Other common ones besides surprise are superiority, relief, admiration, schadenfreude, profanity, obscenity, cleverness, truth, relevance, relatability, novelty, misdirection, delivery, and timing. We can see that none of these are the essential ingredient for humor because, like with surprise, it’s easy to think of examples of the enhancer that have a complete absence of humor, or examples of humor that have a complete absence of the enhancer.

Also popular are incongruity theories, which say that humor occurs when we perceive the juxtaposition of incompatible or contradictory things, and that these things are associated in some way. This overly broad concept suffers from the same problem as the others above in that it’s easy to imagine incongruous things with zero humor. An offshoot of the theory states that we laugh when the incongruity is resolved, but this is also insufficient for humor and mostly just pertains to the structure of a certain kind of verbal joke that has ambiguity.

A newer theory that has gained some traction helpfully provides more specificity to incongruity by suggesting that humor arises when we perceive something as wrong or not as it should be, but at the same time feel it is acceptable or okay (a benign violation)¹. This is on the right track but still unsatisfying because it ultimately doesn’t really tell us much. It’s evident from the pleasure of it that finding something funny, to at least some degree, feels acceptable or okay. So we’re left with this inexact and insufficient idea of “wrongness” to describe humor that is far too imprecise to be valuable in our understanding of it.

I’ve developed a much more specific and illuminating yet still comprehensive theory that explains exactly what this wrongness is. I contend that my theory identifies the only qualities shared by all humor and, therefore, defines humor’s fundamental nature.

The Harmless Delusion Theory

I propose that the essence of humor is harmless delusion. To find a stimulus funny, we must perceive that a person has a delusional belief. This means we must perceive 1) that a person believes something is correct or true and 2) that it should be clear to this person that it’s incorrect or untrue. We must simultaneously perceive that the stimulus is harmless, meaning that it feels to at least some degree okay, acceptable, inoffensive, or safe to us personally. If either of these conditions is absent, we do not experience humor. I’m using the informal, nonmedical sense of delusion, not the more severe kind associated with a mental disorder or mental illness. The delusion we find funny can be any belief held despite clear conflicting evidence, even one very minor or mild. It can be someone else’s delusion or our own. It can be a delusion that we perceive a person actually has, one that we perceive a person pretends to have, or one that we perceive in our imagination that a person has. The person can be an animal or thing that we imagine is a person.

The 10 Categories of Delusion

I’ve identified ten distinct ways this delusion occurs. I suggest that these ten types of delusional beliefs are at the very heart of humor. We experience something as funny only when we perceive that a person holds one or more of these beliefs and that it feels harmless to us personally. This exhaustive list begins with types that are delusional versions of basic errors and moves toward kinds that are more inherently delusional.

1. Delusional Underreaction, Understatement, or Similar: A belief that something is a small amount, degree, extent, etc., even though it’s clearly much larger.
2. Delusional Overreaction, Overstatement, or Similar: A belief that something is a large amount, degree, extent, etc., even though it’s clearly much smaller.
3. Delusional Lack of Knowledge or Judgment: A belief that one’s knowledge or judgment is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.
4. Delusional Lack of Awareness: A belief that one’s awareness of what is present or happening is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.
5. Delusional Misunderstanding: A belief that something has a particular meaning, even though it clearly means something else.
6. Delusional Norm Violation: A belief that a behavior is appropriate or acceptable, even though it clearly isn’t.
7. Delusional Contradiction: 1) A belief that something both is the case and isn’t the case at the same time. 2) A belief that two things are compatible, even though they clearly aren’t.
8. Delusional Nonsense: A belief that something has meaning, even though it clearly doesn’t.
9. Delusional Impossibility or Improbability: A belief that something can be done or happen, even though it clearly can’t or very likely can’t.
10. Delusional Absurdity: This category includes extreme cases of categories 1 to 7, and is synonymous with categories 8 and 9.

Observational Evidence

The following is an extensive list of diversified and detailed examples (83 to be exact) offered as evidence for this theory’s strength in accurately explaining the many different types of humor experiences (i.e., that harmless delusion is necessary for humor). Most of the examples are from works popular globally and already well known to be funny. Many of them also involve fictional contexts, making their potential to feel harmless to us readily apparent. So, I will concentrate mainly on pointing out the delusional belief that sparks the humor. With real-life cases, I’ll also address the perception of harmlessness.

First, we’ll look at each of the ten delusion types one by one using relatively straightforward kinds of humor. Then, we’ll examine the presence of delusion in more complex varieties. Before we jump in, here’s a technique for spotting the delusional belief in the thing found funny. Look for a person, or something that might cause us to think of a person, who acts on the belief and thus could be viewed as making a mistake they shouldn’t be making. The person shouldn’t be making this mistake because what is correct or true should be clear to them.

1. Delusional Underreaction, Understatement, or Similar

A belief that something is a small amount, degree, extent, etc., even though it’s clearly much larger.

Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory: Willy Wonka (Gene Wilder) reacts nonchalantly to children expanding, shrinking, falling down chutes, etc.: “It happens every time. They all become blueberries. Oh well, I’ll get it right in the end.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Wonka’s belief that the severity of the children’s condition is small, even though it’s clearly much larger.

The Big Lebowski: The Dude (Jeff Bridges) has his house broken into and is assaulted, but his biggest worry is that his rug that “really tied the room together” is damaged. When being grabbed and thrown into a waiting car, he’s only concerned about spilling the drink he’s holding: “Careful man, there’s a beverage here.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The Dude’s belief that the danger of his situation is small, even though it’s clearly much larger.

Airplane 2: The Sequel: Elaine (Julie Hagerty) is a flight attendant on a space shuttle and is making an announcement to passengers: “We’ve been thrown off course just a tad…In space terms, that’s about half a million miles.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Elaine’s belief that the distance they are off course is small, even though it’s clearly much larger.

2. Delusional Overreaction, Overstatement, or Similar

A belief that something is a large amount, degree, extent, etc., even though it’s clearly much smaller.

The Jerk: Navin (Steve Martin) jumps for joy when the new phone directory with his name in it is delivered: “The new phone book’s here! The new phone book’s here! I’m somebody now! Millions of people look at this book every day!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Navin’s belief that the significance of his name in the phone book is large, even though it’s clearly much smaller.

In a standup routine, Eddie Murphy imitates a child when first hearing the bell of an ice cream truck, excitedly yelling at the top of his lungs: “Ice cream! Ice cream! The ice cream man is coming! The ice cream man is coming! Ma! Throw down some money!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The child’s belief that the significance of the ice cream is large, even though it’s clearly much smaller. This is an example of how we can perceive a child as delusional when we think of an adult behaving like the child. In effect, we imagine the child as a delusional adult. This shift in perception is made easier here by an adult doing the imitation.

This Is Spinal Tap: Nigel (Christopher Guest), the rock musician, is in his dressing room complaining about the tiny bread and olive with missing pimento on his food tray. Throwing the olive down, he says, “It’s a complete catastrophe!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Nigel’s belief that the problem with his food is large, even though it’s clearly much smaller.

In a Jerry Seinfeld standup joke, he helps us imagine a possible discussion between the people who came up with the name for Life breakfast cereal. One person says, “Why don’t we call it Oaties or Squaries?” Another one replies, “Oh, no. This is much bigger than that. This is life I tell you! It’s life!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The cereal-namer’s belief that the significance of the cereal is large, even though it’s clearly much smaller.

3. Delusional Lack of Knowledge or Judgment

A belief that one’s knowledge or judgment is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

The Office (American): Michael (Steve Carell) says, “I’m not superstitious, but I am a little stitious.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Michael’s belief that his knowledge about the word is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

The Simpsons: Homer Simpson quotes: “Operator, give me the number for 911!” “I’ll make the money by selling one of my livers. I can get by with one.” “English? Who needs that? I’m never going to England.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Homer’s belief that his knowledge about these things is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

The Jerk: Navin, in a fancy restaurant, orders the freshest wine (“The freshest you’ve got!”) and complains about the escargot (“You would think that in a fancy restaurant at these prices you could keep the snails off the food!”) DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Navin’s belief that his knowledge about wine and snails is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

Big: Josh (Tom Hanks) is a 12-year-old in an adult body. At a party, he eats baby corn like regular corn on the cob. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Josh’s belief that his knowledge or judgment about how to eat the baby corn is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect (especially for an adult, which is how we view him).

4. Delusional Lack of Awareness

A belief that one’s awareness of what is present or happening is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

Canned joke: A man is driving on the highway. His wife calls him and in a worried voice says, “Honey, be careful! I just heard on the news that there was a madman driving the wrong way on the highway!” The man replies, “Not just one, there are hundreds!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The man’s belief that his awareness of what is happening on the highway is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

City Lights: A Tramp (Charlie Chaplin) is eating spaghetti at a party and a paper streamer still attached to the ceiling lands in it. He eats the spaghetti and then begins eating the streamer, including standing up to do so. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: A Tramp’s belief that his awareness of what he’s eating is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

The General: Johnnie (Buster Keaton) sits on the side rod of an old locomotive. As it starts moving, he goes up and down with it, but doesn’t realize it until ten seconds pass. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Johnnie’s belief that his awareness of what is happening around him is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect.

Seinfeld: Elaine (Julia Louis-Dreyfus) is at a wedding and dancing very badly (flailing thumbs, arms, and legs). The people around her just stand and stare, looking confused and annoyed. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Elaine’s belief that her awareness of her dancing ability and how others feel about her dancing is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect. This is an example of humorous lack of self-awareness.

A hypothetical common situation that we sometimes find funny: We are alone and looking everywhere for our eyeglasses, only to eventually find them on top of our head. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Our belief that our awareness of what is on our body is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect. This is an example of how we can find ourselves funny by perceiving our own delusion in hindsight.

5. Delusional Misunderstanding

A belief that something has a particular meaning, even though it clearly means something else.

Puns and similar wordplay contain words with double meaning. When we see or hear a statement that makes use of double meaning, we can feel enjoyment from the cleverness of its design and our own cleverness or insight in figuring out the two meanings (like the feeling of solving a problem or puzzle). But the pleasure from perceiving something as clever (i.e., intelligent, creative, skillful, quick) is not the same as the pleasure of amusement from humor (Aha! vs. Haha!). Not only do the two experiences feel different, but research shows that the regions of the brain they activate differ². Cleverness can only enhance our enjoyment of humor; it is not humor itself. Hence the silence or groan that typically greets an intended joke that relies on double meaning alone.

When looking at decidedly humorous things that have double meaning, we can see that there is always the presence of delusion too. One way this happens (but not the only way, as I’ll show later) is through the misunderstanding that can result from the ambiguity in double meaning. To see what I mean, watch how in the following cases, puns that are all homophones (same pronunciation, different meaning) have noticeably more humor with the incremental addition of delusional misunderstanding.

First, we have these puns in corporate slogans and taglines: “The Citi Never Sleeps” (Citibank), “Nothing runs like a Deere” (John Deere), and “The Company You Keep” (New York Life Insurance). DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: None to really speak of, and so no real humor to speak of, either. The double meaning and its cleverness are the focus, which is likely the company’s intention.

Next, we have the same kind of pun, from Airplane!: Rumack (Leslie Nielsen): “Can you fly this plane and land it?” Striker (Robert Hays): “Surely you can’t be serious.” Rumack: “I am serious, and don’t call me Shirley.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: We now have a prominent delusional belief based on misunderstanding, and with it, discernible humor: Rumack’s belief that the word means the woman’s name, even though it clearly means that Striker is emphasizing he thinks something is true.

And last, in a sketch from Saturday Night Live, the news commentator Emily Litella (Gilda Radner): “What’s all this fuss I keep hearing about violins on television? Why don’t parents want their children to see violins on television? If they only show violins after 10 o’clock at night, the little babies will all be asleep and they won’t learn any music appreciation! I say there should be more violins on television!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Still revolving around a homophonic pun (violins/violence), delusion and humor are in full bloom in this emphatic argument caused by Emily’s belief that the word means the musical instrument, even though it clearly means the negative behavior.

A bonus supercharged homophonic pun joke is the famous Abbott and Costello routine, Who’s on First?: Bud Abbott is identifying the players on a baseball team for Lou Costello, but they have names like “Who” and “What,” causing Costello to think Abbott is asking him questions. Abbott: “Who is on first base.” Costello: “What are you asking me for?” And so on. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Costello’s belief that Abbott’s words mean he is asking questions, even though they clearly mean he is saying the players’ names.

Here’s an example of delusional misunderstanding due to ambiguity of not just a single word but a sequence of words:

This joke won an online contest as the funniest joke among 40,000 rated. Two hunters are in the woods when one of them collapses and stops breathing. His friend calls 911 and tells the operator, “My friend collapsed while we were hunting and I’m afraid he might be dead.” The operator says, “Stay calm. First, let’s make sure he’s dead.” There is a pause on the other end of the line, followed by the sound of a gunshot. “All right,” says the man to the operator, “now what?” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The hunter’s belief that the words “make sure he’s dead” mean “shoot him to make sure he’s dead,” even though they clearly mean “check him to make sure you’re right that he’s dead.”

Moving on from ambiguity, in All in the Family, Archie Bunker (Carroll O’Connor) uses malapropisms such as “detergent to crime,” “invading the issue,” and “last will and tentacle.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Archie’s belief that the words he’s using have a particular meaning, even though they clearly mean something else.

The misunderstanding doesn’t have to be word-based at all, as this example illustrates:

Hannah and Her Sisters: Gail (Julie Cavner), telling Mickey (Woody Allen) he shouldn’t worry so much: “Two months ago you thought you had a malignant melanoma.” Mickey: “Naturally. I had the sudden appearance of a black spot on my back.” Gail: “It was on your shirt!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Mickey’s belief that the spot on his back means cancer, even though it clearly means he has a spot on the back of his shirt.

6. Delusional Norm Violation

A belief that a behavior is appropriate or acceptable, even though it clearly isn’t.

Henny Youngman: “Women are crazy today. Take my wife — please!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Here’s an example of double meaning made funny by delusion that doesn’t involve misunderstanding. Instead, we have Youngman’s belief that it’s appropriate or acceptable to make a request to take his wife away, even though it clearly isn’t.

Seinfeld: The series brought us the person who stands extremely close to the person they’re speaking to (close talker), the person who dips the same chip in dip twice (double dipper), and the soup restaurateur who refuses service to customers who don’t follow his stringent rules (“No soup for you!”). DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The characters’ belief that their behavior is appropriate or acceptable, even though it clearly isn’t.

The Far Side: The comic strip by Gary Larson portrays a chicken wearing glasses and an apron, serving a bowl of soup to a smaller chicken in bed, with the caption, “Quit complaining and eat it! Number one, chicken soup is good for the flu — and number two, it’s nobody we know.” With anthropomorphism, we attribute humanlike qualities and mental states to nonhumans. In effect, we imagine them as people. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The humanlike mother character’s belief that cannibalism is appropriate or acceptable, even though (for humans) it’s clearly not.

7. Delusional Contradiction

(1) Based on the formal logical definition of contradiction: A belief that something both is the case and isn’t the case at the same time. This is sometimes called self-contradiction or situational irony. (2) Based on the informal definition of contradiction: A belief that two things are compatible, even though they clearly aren’t.

Examples of the first definition of the term:

These actions: A person posts on social media that social media is a waste of time; a sign says, “Want to learn to read? Call us today.”; and a psychic cancels a performance because of “unforeseen circumstances.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The person’s belief that social media both is and isn’t a waste of time; the sign maker’s belief that you both can and can’t read; and the psychic’s belief that they both can and can’t see the future. All are examples of unintentional humor.

Quote attributed to Yogi Berra: “Nobody goes there anymore. It’s too crowded.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Berra’s belief that both nobody goes there and many people go there.

The Simpsons: Homer makes a toast, “To alcohol! The cause of, and solution to, all of life’s problems.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Homer’s belief that alcohol both causes a problem and gets rid of it. This example and the one before are paradoxes; as a whole, they have a bit of truth but are still mostly perceived as contradictory.

The Office (British): David Brent (Ricky Gervais) says, “You’ve seen how I react to people, make them feel good, make them think that anything’s possible… And I don’t do it so they turn round and go, ‘Thank you, David, for the opportunity, thank you for the wisdom, thank you for the laughs.’ I do it so, one day, someone will go ‘There goes David Brent. I must remember to thank him.’” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: David’s belief that he both doesn’t and does want to be thanked.

Monty Python has the refined matrons of the Batley Townswomen’s Guild (the Pythons in drag) reenacting the Attack on Pearl Harbor by hitting each other with their handbags and wrestling each other to the muddy ground. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The women’s belief that they both are and aren’t kind, polite, sophisticated, etc. This is an example of how self-contradiction can go even deeper, to the point where a person acts in a way contrary to a central characteristic of who they are or how we know them.

Examples of the second definition of the term (a belief that two clearly incompatible things are compatible):

The Simpsons: Lisa: “Hey Ralph, want to come with me and Allison to play Anagrams?” Allison: “We take proper names and rearrange the letters to form a description of that person.” Ralph: “My cat’s breath smells like cat food.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Ralph’s belief that his statement is consistent with what the girls just said, even though it clearly isn’t. This is an example of a non sequitur (does not logically follow from what preceded it).

The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: Douglas Adams, as narrator, asks, “Why are people born? Why do they die? Why do they want to spend so much of the intervening time wearing digital watches?” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Adams’s belief that questions about human existence and watches belong together, even though they clearly don’t. This is an example of bathos (a sudden shift from serious or important to trivial or ordinary).

With the explanations in this section, the weakness of the incongruity theory becomes more apparent. It’s not incongruity itself we find funny; it’s the belief there’s no incongruity, even though there clearly is.

8. Delusional Nonsense

A belief that something has meaning, even though it clearly doesn’t.

Monty Python and the Holy Grail: The knights who say “Ni.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The knights’ belief that the word has meaning, even though it clearly doesn’t.

The Swedish Chef, the Muppet character, speaks gibberish that sounds Swedish but isn’t. His best-known phrase is “Bork, bork, bork!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The Chef’s belief that his words have meaning, even though they clearly don’t.

Groundhog Day: Phil (Bill Murray), who is repeating the same day over and over, says, “Well, what if there is no tomorrow? There wasn’t one today.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Because we know the character’s situation, we understand what he means. But when looking at his comment from the perspective of the unknowing person he’s speaking to, we see Phil’s belief that his statement has meaning, even though it clearly doesn’t. This is an example of humor made possible by dramatic irony (we observers have knowledge that an observee doesn’t have).

9. Delusional Impossibility or Improbability

A belief that something can be done or happen, even though it clearly can’t or very likely can’t.

Groucho Marx: “One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I don’t know.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: After figuring out the double meaning, which we enjoy mainly as clever, not funny, we see Groucho’s belief that it’s possible for an elephant to wear his pajamas, even though it’s clearly impossible.

A practical joker can intentionally cause a target to have a delusional belief. For example, in a Candid Camera prank, a person is asked to deliver a package to a building and return to the building fifteen minutes later. In between, a false building front is removed, making it appear that the building disappeared. When returning, the target says things like, “It’s pretty amazing, because the building was just here.” and “I think I’m going crazy.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The target’s belief that it’s possible the building could disappear in fifteen minutes, even though it clearly isn’t. This is another example of humor enabled by dramatic irony.

10. Delusional Absurdity

This is a special category that includes extreme cases of categories 1 to 7 and is equivalent to categories 8 and 9.

Monty Python and the Holy Grail: Black Knight (John Cleese) has his limbs severed in a sword fight while calmly stating things like “Tis but a scratch.” and “Tis a flesh wound.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Extreme Underreaction and Understatement. The Black Knight’s belief that the severity of his injuries is small, even though it’s clearly very much larger.

Monty Python’s Flying Circus: A customer at a restaurant asks his waiter for a new fork because his is dirty, which ultimately leads to the restaurant’s manager intentionally impaling himself with the fork because he’s so distraught about the error. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Extreme Overreaction. The restaurant manager’s belief that the significance of the error is large, even though it’s clearly very much smaller.

Multiple Delusions

A single funny thing doesn’t have to be limited to just one of the ten; it can simultaneously contain multiple types of delusion. I believe this can potentially act as another enhancer to strengthen the humor.

New Yorker cartoon by Bob Mankoff: A businessman is speaking on the phone to someone while looking and pointing at his appointment book. The caption reads, “No, Thursday’s out. How about never — is never good for you?” DELUSIONS WE FIND FUNNY: The businessman’s belief that he can be both rude and polite at the same time (Contradiction) and that it’s appropriate to say he never wants to meet, even though it clearly isn’t (Norm Violation).

Rodney Dangerfield: “My psychiatrist told me I was going crazy and I said I’d like a second opinion. He said, alright, you’re ugly too.” DELUSIONS WE FIND FUNNY: The doctor’s belief that Rodney wants the doctor to give another opinion, even though Rodney clearly doesn’t (Misunderstanding), and the doctor’s belief his insult is appropriate, even though it clearly isn’t (Norm Violation).

Take the Money and Run: Virgil (Woody Allen) is holding up a bank and hands the teller a note that says he has a gun. The teller calmly insists that the note says ‘gub’ not ‘gun’. DELUSIONS WE FIND FUNNY: The teller’s belief the note means ‘gub,’ even though it clearly means ‘gun’ (Nonsense, Misunderstanding) and that the danger is small, even though it’s clearly much larger (Underreaction).

I maintain that all humor flows from these ten sources of delusion, including the humor found in pretense, verbal irony, parody, and satire. We’ll look at these more complex forms next.

Pretense and Verbal Irony

Humorous pretense occurs when, for the purpose of creating humor, a person pretends to have a delusional belief. The pretend belief is what we find funny. Note that this kind of humor involves a person communicating as themselves and pretending for the amusement of others in that person’s reality. It differs from examples given earlier that involve a person pretending (acting) as a fictional character for the amusement of others outside the character’s world (i.e., the audience). A person using humorous pretense is typically motivated to make it obvious that they are pretending. Otherwise, they might be seen as actually delusional and thus not harmless.

Humorous pretense generally takes shape in two ways: 1) We create it ourselves, often impromptu, when conversing with our family, friends, and others in our life. We do this when we kid or joke with others. 2) An artist or performer creates it when communicating as themselves directly with their audience.

Examples of the first way are a challenge to document because they happen spontaneously in real life. To show how it works, I will list a few I’ve created or observed:

In a standard dad joke, my daughter says to me, “I’m hungry.” I reply, “Hi Hungry, I’m Gary.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: My pretend belief that I don’t recognize my daughter and that the word means my daughter’s name, even though it’s clearly my daughter and it means her need for food (Lack of Awareness, Misunderstanding).

In my house, we try to trap insects we find inside and then release them outside. After doing so and coming back inside, I’ll sometimes announce, “Nobody answer the door if the doorbell rings.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: My pretend belief that it’s possible the insect will try to get back inside by ringing the doorbell, even though it’s clearly not possible (Impossibility).

My wife’s social media post on the day we turned the clocks forward an hour: “I actually lost three hours this morning. But then I found a couple behind the couch.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Her pretend belief that it’s possible to find hours behind the couch, even though it’s clearly not possible (Impossibility).

When asked in a 60 Minutes interview if his parents were funny too, Jerry Seinfeld said yes and gave an example of how, if a fly would land on your soup and you tried to shoo it away, his father would say to you, “How much could he eat?” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: His father’s pretend belief that shooing the fly away means you don’t want it to eat all your soup, even though it clearly means you don’t want a fly to touch your soup (Misunderstanding).

Examples of the second way pretense is used (an artist or performer communicating as themselves):

Steven Wright standup jokes: “I spilled spot remover on my dog and now he’s gone.” “I was once arrested for walking in someone else’s sleep.” “I just lost a buttonhole.” “One of my grandfathers died when he was a little boy.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Wright’s pretend belief that these things are possible, even though they clearly aren’t (Impossibility). Bonus points if you spotted the pun + delusion.

Ellen DeGeneres standup joke: “A friend of mine was at my house, and I told him: ‘I’m going to do standup again.’ And he said: ‘Really?’ And I said: ‘Yes, why?’ And he said: ‘Well, do you think you’re still relatable?’ And I said: ‘Yes, I do think I’m still relatable. I’m a human being.’ He said: ‘Well, I mean, your life has changed so much.’ And I said: ‘I know, but I still think I’m relatable.’ And anyway, just then, Batu, my butler, stepped into the library and announced that my breakfast was ready.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: DeGeneres momentarily creates a pretend version of herself who believes that her awareness of her relatability is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect (Lack of Awareness).

Insult comedy, including the roast, involves subjecting a person to insulting jokes at their expense. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The comedian’s pretend belief it’s appropriate or acceptable to gratuitously insult someone else, even though it clearly isn’t (Norm Violation). Because it’s in the context of joking, this type of humor is generally seen as harmless. But as it often has real people as the butt of the joke, unpleasant feelings and emotions might arise and thus diminish the humor experience, particularly for the target.

A person who tells a joke that is intentionally unfunny (sometimes labeled anti-humor): One example is a joke called a “shaggy dog story,” which involves telling a long joke that ends without a punchline. Another is a joke with an obvious answer as the punchline, like: “Why did the chicken cross the road? To get to the other side.” A third is Norm MacDonald roasting Bob Saget with mild, corny jokes. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The joke teller’s pretend belief that their awareness of the joke’s funniness is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect (Lack of Awareness).

Besides using pretense solely to be funny, a person might also do so to produce verbal irony. Verbal irony occurs when a person overtly pretends to have a belief with the intention of implying their attitude about something or someone. Sarcastic verbal irony is when this attitude is a negative evaluation meant to criticize, insult, or ridicule someone. Like with non-ironic pretense, we find the pretend belief funny when we view it as delusional.

First, two conventional examples of non-sarcastic verbal irony: A person says, “What lovely weather we’re having!” when it’s pouring rain. A driver who gets a flat tire says, “Great, this is just what I needed today!” Statements like these have become such a common way people express displeasure with a situation that they have lost most of their humor power, but the elements are still there. DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The speaker’s pretend belief that their awareness of what is present or happening is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect (Lack of Awareness).

Sarcastic verbal irony typically packs a more humorous punch. This is likely because the act of being sarcastic, like insult humor discussed earlier, can be perceived as having a belief that’s delusionally inappropriate (Norm Violation). Additionally, the pretend belief can point to and magnify a real belief held by the target of the irony, resulting in the target being found funny as well. In effect, a delusional belief can be projected onto the target. Sarcasm’s sting has the potential to introduce feelings of unpleasantness and harm into the picture, which might diminish the experience of humor, especially for the target. The following are examples of different varieties of humorous sarcastic verbal irony:

Saturday Night Live: Roseanne Roseannadanna (Gilda Radner) is a news commentator reading a letter from a viewer named Richard Feder, which says, “Dear Roseanne Roseannadanna. Last Thursday, I quit smoking. Now, I’m depressed, I gained weight, my face broke out, I’m nauseous, I’m constipated, my feet swelled, my gums are bleeding, my sinuses are clogged, I got heartburn, I’m cranky, and I have gas. What should I do?” She replies, “Mr. Feder, you sound like a real attractive guy.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Roseanne’s pretend belief that her awareness of Mr. Feder’s attractiveness is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect (Lack of Awareness).

In a hypothetical to illustrate a typical remark, a man and woman are waiting for an elevator. The button has already been pressed and is lit, but the woman impatiently presses the button again a few quick times in a row. The man says, “Good idea, keep pressing the button. That should make it get here faster.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The man’s pretend belief that his knowledge is correct that repeatedly pressing the button makes it arrive faster, even though it’s clearly incorrect. Also, the woman’s real belief, which the man has echoed and drawn attention to (Lack of Knowledge).

Another hypothetical, this time a cliché: A man says something which a woman finds flawed, so she replies, “What planet are you from?” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The woman’s pretend belief that it’s possible the man is from another planet, even though it’s clearly not possible. Also, the man’s real belief, which is alluded to and, through exaggeration, magnified by the woman (Impossibility).

Friends: Chandler (Matthew Perry): “I got her machine.” Joey (Matt LeBlanc): “Her answering machine?” Chandler: “No, interestingly enough, her leaf-blower picked up.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Chandler’s pretend belief that the leaf blower answered the phone, even though it’s clearly impossible or highly improbable. Also, Joey’s real belief, which is alluded to by Chandler (Impossibility/ Improbability).

Friends: Joey: “Hey, Chandler, when you see Frankie, tell him Joey Tribiani says hello. He’ll know what I mean.” Chandler: “Are you sure he’s going to be able to crack that code?” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Chandler’s pretend belief that his own knowledge about the message “hello” is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect. Also, Joey’s real belief, which is echoed and, through exaggeration, magnified by Chandler (Lack of Knowledge).

When Harry Met Sally: A group of friends is playing a game where people must guess what a person is drawing, and the clue is that it’s ‘a saying’. Jess (Bruno Kirby) shouts out the guess, “baby fish mouth.” When finding out the answer is ‘baby talk,’ Jess says, “What’s that? That’s not a saying.” Harry (Billy Crystal) replies, “Oh, but baby fish mouth is sweeping the nation.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Harry’s pretend belief that his own knowledge about the phrase is correct, even though it’s clearly incorrect. Also, Jess’s real belief, which is echoed and, through exaggeration, magnified by Harry (Lack of Knowledge).

Parody

Parody is simply humorous imitation. To imitate someone or something in a humorous way is to imitate with an enhancement or addition of one or more of the ten delusional beliefs.

A frequent technique in parody is to exaggerate a person’s style, mannerism, or eccentricity, to the point where the person appears delusional. Two impersonation examples:

Joe Piscopo and Phil Hartman heighten Frank Sinatra’s swaggering, tough guy persona by having him insult other celebrities, such as calling Stevie Wonder “blind as a bat,” Sinead O’Connor “cue ball,” and Bono “Bozo.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The pretend Sinatra’s belief his behavior is acceptable, even though it clearly isn’t (Norm Violation).

Jim Carrey takes Jimmy Stewart’s trademark optimism to extremes by having him enthusiastically and cheerfully say, “Well, I guess we’re gonna have ourselves a nuclear holocaust!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The pretend Stewart’s belief the danger is small, even though it’s clearly much larger (Underreaction).

Parody can also work in the other direction and generate humor by diminishing an already elevated or exaggerated person, as it does in these examples:

Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery: Dr. Evil, a parody of a movie villain, talking to his son: “Scott, that hurts Daddy when you say that, honestly. Could I have a hug? Give me a hug. Come here and give your father a hug.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Dr. Evil’s belief that he both is and isn’t evil (Contradiction).

In a standup routine, Eddie Izzard imitates Darth Vader standing in line for lunch at the Death Star cafeteria and arguing with the server about the need for a tray. He finally relents when told it’s because the food is hot. “Oh, I see, the food is hot. I’m sorry, I did not realize. Ha-ha.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The pretend Vader’s belief that he both is and isn’t powerful and merciless (Contradiction). With both the Vader and Dr. Evil parodies, we perceive the characters as maintaining their defining qualities while at the same time acting in a way that’s opposite to them.

In many cases, parody primarily serves as a serious framework that conveniently provides a sharp contrast for funny content. Several examples provided earlier in this article were from parodies of serious genres (e.g., Airplane!, This is Spinal Tap, Monty Python, and The Office).

Satire

Satire is a form of creative work that exposes, comments on, or criticizes aspects of people or society. It sometimes uses humor, via all the elements and techniques highlighted here so far, as a way of doing this.

An impersonation can go beyond style to satirically focus on a perceived flaw of a person. Tina Fey highlights Sarah Palin’s inexperience by impersonating her saying this about visiting the United Nations: “It was just amazing. So many interesting people. Though, I have to say I was disheartened by how many of them were foreigners. I promise that when Senator McCain and I are elected, we’re gonna get those jobs back in American hands.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: The pretend Palin’s belief that her knowledge of the U.N. is correct, even though it’s clearly not (Lack of Knowledge). And, by association, the real Sarah Palin’s beliefs.

Jerry Seinfeld uses an analogy to comment on the high price of movie-theater candy. In a standup routine, he makes a comparison between the candy and jewelry that relies on the fact that both are in a glass case: “I go up to the guy, ‘I’d like to see something in a Milk Dud if I could. Nothing too garish, of course.’ Sometimes I will take out one Milk Dud and put it on the black velvet. ‘Oh, boy, that’s a beauty. Honey, what do you think?’” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Seinfeld momentarily creates a pretend version of himself who believes the worth of the candy is large, even though it’s clearly much smaller (Overstatement or Overvaluation). And, by association, the beliefs of the people running movie theaters.

A Modest Proposal, by Jonathan Swift, is an iconic example of humorous satire. In his essay, to implicitly expose and criticize the treatment of the Irish, Swift proposes that the Irish poor sell their children as food to the rich: “A young, healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Swift’s pretend belief that it’s appropriate or acceptable to treat children this way, even though it’s clearly not (Norm Violation). And, by association, the beliefs of the rich and the British government.

Dr. Strangelove criticizes Cold War ideologies by ridiculing the people in power. President Muffley (Peter Sellers): “Gentlemen, you can’t fight in here! This is the War Room!” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Muffley’s belief that you both can’t and can fight in the room (Contradiction). General Turgidson (George C. Scott): “Mr. President, I’m not saying we wouldn’t get our hair mussed. But I do say no more than ten to twenty million killed, tops. Uh, depending on the breaks.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Turgidson’s belief that the extent of casualties is small, even though it’s clearly much larger (Understatement). And, by association, the beliefs of the real people in power.

Final example:

Being There takes aim at politics and media culture, with the character Chance (Peter Sellers), who we see is really a simple-minded gardener, being mistaken for a thoughtful, wise businessman and becoming a media figure and political advisor to the President of the United States. Chance: “As long as the roots are not severed, all is well. And all will be well in the garden. In the garden, growth has its season. First comes spring and summer, but then we have fall and winter. And then we get spring and summer again.” Ben Rand (Melvyn Douglas): “I think what our insightful young friend is saying is that we welcome the inevitable seasons of nature, but we’re upset by the seasons of our economy.” President Bobby (Jack Warden): “Well, Mr. Gardiner, I must admit, that is one of the most refreshing and optimistic statements I’ve heard in a very, very long time.” DELUSION WE FIND FUNNY: Rand’s and President Bobby’s belief that Chance’s words mean he is giving advice about the economy, even though they clearly mean he is talking about gardening (Misunderstanding). And, by association, the beliefs of real politicians and others in power. This is one more example of humor driven by dramatic irony. Because the truth is clear to us, we feel it should be clear to the characters.

These are just a tiny fraction of the many cases I’ve scrutinized. For each of the above, countless others in a similar vein exhibit the same kind of harmless delusional belief.

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

As I indicated upfront, a theory that correctly defines humor’s essence will specify what is both necessary and sufficient for humor to occur. This means that the harmless delusion theory passes muster if, generally speaking, all things we find funny have harmless delusion (necessary), and all things we perceive as harmless delusion have humor (sufficient). Let’s look at each of these individually.

All things we find funny have harmless delusion. I think I’ve supplied abundant supporting evidence in this essay that my theory is very likely to pass this test. With a wide-ranging list of examples covering many of humor’s forms, I’ve methodically shown how harmless delusion can be found in each one. Though it may not always be the most prominent feature, harmless delusional belief, I claim, is always perceptible in decidedly funny things. Never is it implausible that such a belief is present and noticeable.

To further investigate, an experiment could be conducted with a representative sample of people. Participants can be asked to rate various stimuli in terms of the degree of funniness, the degree to which the stimulus feels okay, acceptable, or inoffensive to the participant (harmless), and the degree to which a person seems to have a belief despite clear evidence to the contrary (delusion). Other positive qualities, including cleverness, should be measured as well to disguise that the study is about humor and properly evaluate puns and double meaning. Effort should also be made to control for enhancers. Generally, if people who rate stimuli as funny also rate them as harmless and a delusion, then the theory passes the “necessary” test.

All things we perceive as harmless delusion have humor. I contend that harmless delusion is intuitively humorous. It seems impossible to imagine a completely humorless instance of a person who harmlessly holds a belief that something is correct or true despite it clearly being incorrect or untrue. So we can see without an experiment that it’s very unlikely the theory will fail this test. But a study like the one I just outlined above could be done here as well, only with manipulation of the presence of harmless delusion. Generally, if people give higher funniness scores to stimuli they rate as containing harmless delusion than they do to stimuli they rate as lacking harmless delusion, then the theory passes the “sufficient” test.

Note that, because humor is subjective at the individual level, it requires more than just a single person finding a single thing unfunny or funny to refute or support the theory. We must perform a more scientific assessment of each case by looking at how people, in general, tend to perceive it. That’s why I’ve emphasized examples already widely regarded as funny and proposed additional research among representative samples of people.

Conclusion

A few closing thoughts:

• That we need to perceive something as both harmless and a delusion to find it funny would help explain the subjectivity of humor and why the same thing can be funny to one person and unfunny to another. People have different cultures, values, experiences, circumstances, relationships, personalities, tastes, moods, etc. All of these factors can affect how each of us interprets something and thus the extent to which it feels negative or unacceptable to us, and a person seems to have a belief that’s obviously incorrect or false. In other words, at least in part, humor is subjective because it is the perception of harmless delusion. Also playing a role is the variable effect of humor enhancers.
• It should not be too surprising that humor—which is essentially a social phenomenon — is based on our ability to perceive others’ beliefs. After all, this is a cognitive skill, called Theory of Mind, that we develop at a very young age and continuously exercise to understand others and successfully engage in social interactions. In further support, research has found that humor appreciation involves some of the same regions of the brain that are also involved in Theory of Mind³.
• This is not the only humor theory to focus on belief. Other ones do so, too, that are not widely known. However, they are centered around concepts such as self-deception⁴ or discovering one’s own wrong belief⁵ and thus differ substantially from what I’ve presented here.
• This theory places a potentially valuable new tool in the hands of people seeking to create humor. Not only that, non-people have something to gain as well. To date, we’ve been mostly unsuccessful in our attempt to design machines and artificial intelligence (AI) that can understand and generate humor. Possibly this is because of the lack of an accurate explanation of what humor actually is. With the harmless delusion theory now at our disposal, maybe we can teach the robots a few new tricks.
• While the purpose of this theory is not to explain why we humans evolved to have this kind of response to harmless delusion, I will briefly suggest an idea. The response of amusement and laughter could have evolved as a beneficial way for us to signal to people that harmless delusion is present so they are aware of it and can correct it. A more harmful delusion requires a more forceful signal, like pain.
• My goal with this article is twofold. One, to help everyone better understand humor by presenting my theory in a thorough yet accessible way. Two, to pique the interest of academia, who hopefully will see the same power I see in my hypothesis and want to further explore and test it.

Now that you know this about humor, you might be thinking, “Great, Gary! Thank you so much for ruining humor for me!” (Sarcastic verbal irony). My response is that it absolutely doesn’t ruin it. Experiencing and appreciating humor is very different than thinking about how it works. It’s easy to keep the two separate. Even when I was in analysis mode while researching comedy for this article, I was immensely enjoying all the funniness.

So don’t worry. You can resume your laughter, but now with a greater understanding of what’s so funny.

Contact Gary at howhumorworks@gmail.com

References

1. McGraw, A.P., & Warner, J., 2014. The Humor Code: A Global Search for What Makes Thing Funny.
2. Amir, O., Biederman, I., Wang, Z., Xu, X., 2013. Ha Ha! Versus Aha! A Direct Comparison of Humor to Nonhumorous Insight for Determining the Neural Correlates of Mirth.
3. Iidaka, T., 2016. Humor Appreciation Involves Parametric and Synchronized Activity in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus.
4. Gontar, C., 2018. So the Essence of Humour is Self-Deception? Who Are You Kidding? The Philosopher, Volume CVI №1.
5. Hurley, M. M., Dennett, D. C., Adams Jr, R. B., & Adams, R. B., 2011. Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind.

The “How Humor Works” series presenting the Harmless Delusion Theory

• Part 1: This article (Foundational article)
• Part 2: How Jerry Seinfeld’s Humor Works
• Part 3: How Humor Works in ‘Airplane!’
• Part 4: How Humor Works in ‘Annie Hall’
• Part 5: Responding to Questions and Objections