Wi-Fi 6E, WIFI7 and Bluetooth 5.4 on Windows, Mac, Linux and Hackintosh: supported dongles, chips and experiences (M.2, PCIe and USB) [2025 Update]

This post was updated in March 2025 and has been revised and extended. tldr: the most FOSS and libre is ath9k Atheros AR9380 (for ca.$10, $25 on amazon), best Linux Wi‑Fi 6E BT5.2 is Intel AX210 (for ca.$9, $20 on amazon) and best for hackintosh is a Fenvi card with a Broadcom chipset: Fenvi T919 (for ca. $30, $45 on amazon) — or an aftermarket original Apple Airport card. So far there are no kexts that will allow Intel WiFi 7 chips to work on hackintosh. For Linux and Windows Wi-Fi 7 and BT5.4 get the Intel Wi-Fi7 BE200 as a solid choice (for ca.$23, $40 on amazon).

Text version 4.1 from 2025–03–03

Background on Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard and has a vivid history (see the Wikipedia article for background information). In 2021, there have been over 4.7 billion units equipped with Bluetooth shipped, with a growth forecast of 9%, making it a critical aspect of technology to interact with devices and peripherals.

Bluetooth has been initially introduced in 1994 by Ericsson, and still faces issues from a security standpoint, such as vulnerabilities in pairing protocols, encryption weaknesses, and risks from outdated implementations.

Bluetooth technology was first conceived in 1994 by engineers at Ericsson, a Swedish telecommunications company. The concept emerged from a project led by Dr. Jaap Haartsen to develop short-range wireless communication for mobile devices. It was formalized as a standard in 1998 when the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) was founded by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba (read more at Bluetooth SIG official History, confirmed by Dr. Haartsen’s own account in interviews; IEEE Spectrum — Bluetooth Inventor).

Bluetooth Security Issues in 2025

Bluetooth in 2025 still faces issues from a security standpoint, such as vulnerabilities in pairing protocols (e.g., KNOB attacks exploiting weak key negotiation), encryption weaknesses (e.g., downgrade risks on older versions), and risks from outdated implementations (e.g., unpatched 4.x devices prone to spoofing). On Linux, using kernel 6.6+ and BlueZ 5.70+ with modern chipsets (e.g., Intel BE200) mitigates some threats, but legacy hardware remains a weak link.

Bluetooth pairing (e.g., Secure Simple Pairing) remains susceptible to attacks like “BlueBorne” (2017) or “KNOB” (Key Negotiation of Bluetooth, 2019), where attackers exploit flaws to intercept or force weak encryption. While patches exist, many devices don’t receive updates.

Bluetooth 5.x uses AES-CCM encryption, but older versions (e.g., 4.0) on legacy devices allow downgrade attacks, reducing key strength. Even 5.4’s Encrypted Advertising Data hasn’t fully eliminated risks (read NIST Bluetooth Security for more information).

Many devices in 2025 still run Bluetooth 4.x or earlier, lacking modern mitigations (e.g., LE Secure Connections), exposing them to eavesdropping or spoofing (source: 2023 OWASP Bluetooth security report).

Bluetooth has backwards compatibility

All Bluetooth versions maintain backward compatibility, meaning a Bluetooth 5.4 device can connect to older protocols like 4.2 or 5.0, albeit limited to the lowest common version’s features. For example, a 5.4 chipset pairing with a 5.0 device won’t leverage LE Audio or 5.4’s IoT enhancements. Given this, I recommend opting for a modern Bluetooth 5.4 card or dongle in 2025 to access the latest features — like Periodic Advertising with Responses (PAwR) and Encrypted Advertising Data — while still supporting older devices. On Linux, ensure your kernel (6.6+) and BlueZ (5.70+) are up-to-date to maximize compatibility and performance.

There are only few reasons for choosing older Bluetooth hardware in 2025: (1) you want a run a blob-free Libre Linux Bluetooth stack, (2) you want to use Bluetooth on a Hackintosh, or (3) you are a security researcher that wants to replay known attacks (4) you are a Linux bluetooth kernel driver maintainer.

Reasons for legacy Bluetooth hardware

There are reasons why you want to keep older Bluetooth hardware around — you might be a security researcher replaying existing attacks, or you might want to run a hackintosh computer with OpenCore. You also might be interested in having a secure machine that runs without Binary blobs (read also: What’s the point of avoiding firmware blobs). These binary blobs are everywhere (especially in Ubuntu), and libre approaches involve freeing the BIOS and UEFI from binary blobs with GNU Boot, and Linux-libre: a modified version of the Linux kernel that contains no binary blobs, obfuscated code, or code released under proprietary licenses.

Bluetooth 4
Bluetooth 4.0, launched in June 2010 by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), introduced Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), a game-changer for battery-powered devices like fitness trackers and IoT sensors, while retaining Classic Bluetooth for audio and data transfer. Developed from Ericsson’s early work in 1994, it was first widely adopted in consumer devices with the iPhone 4S in October 2011 — the earliest notable BLE implementation. Subsequent updates refined the standard: Bluetooth 4.1 (December 2013) improved BLE coexistence with LTE and added direct internet connectivity via IPv6, while Bluetooth 4.2 (December 2014) boosted security with LE Secure Connections (elliptic curve cryptography) and increased data packet capacity for faster BLE transfers.

• Hardware Example: The Intel Dual Band Wireless-AC 7260 (mini-PCIe, released 2013) shipped with Bluetooth 4.0 and later supported 4.2 via firmware updates (e.g., ibt-hw-37.7.10-fw-1.80.2.3.d.bseq, ~2015). Older chips like Intel 6235 (2012) stayed at 4.0 due to hardware limits.
• Linux Status: Kernel 3.0+ (2011) introduced Bluetooth 4.0 support via the btusb driver, with BLE enabled in 3.12 (2013). Bluetooth 4.1 and 4.2 features (e.g., LE Secure Connections) landed in kernel 3.19+ (2015) and BlueZ 5.0+ (2012), maturing by kernel 4.4 (2016). In 2025, 4.x remains common in legacy USB dongles (e.g., CSR8510-based) and early IoT devices, though security risks like eavesdropping persist on unpatched systems.

Bluetooth 5 and 5.1

Bluetooth 5.0 (launched in December 2016) marked a leap forward with 2x speed (2M PHY), 4x range, and 8x broadcasting capacity over 4.2. The first consumer device with official support was the Samsung Galaxy S8 (not the Sony Xperia XZ Premium, which launched in 2017 but isn’t confirmed as the first). Bluetooth 5.1, released in January 2019, added direction-finding (angle of arrival/departure) and improved caching — features often enabled via firmware updates on 5.0 hardware. Bluetooth 5.1 (introduced 2019) would be possible to support with a firmware update, so some devices have gotten a 5.1 update. An example is the Intel Wireless-AC 9260 which at launch only supported Bluetooth 5.0 but eventually ended getting Bluetooth 5.1 via a firmware update (source).

• Example: The Intel Wireless-AC 9260 (M.2, Wi-Fi 5) shipped with Bluetooth 5.0 in 2018 but gained 5.1 support via firmware ibt-18–16–1.sfi (~2019–2020). Later updates even pushed it to 5.2 (more below), showing how firmware can extend capabilities.

Bluetooth 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4

Bluetooth 5.2

Bluetooth 5.2, finalized in January 2020 (announced December 2019), introduced LE Power Control for optimized range and power, Enhanced Attribute Protocol (EATT) for better LE performance, and Isochronous Channels — enabling LE Audio with the LC3 codec for efficient, low-latency audio streaming. Not all 5.0/5.1 hardware can upgrade to 5.2, as LE Audio often requires specific controller support beyond firmware.

• Upgradeable Hardware: Intel AX200 and AX201 (initially 5.1, 2019–2020) reached 5.2 with ibt-20–1–3.sfi and ibt-19–0–4.sfi (~2021). Intel 9560 and 9260 (initially 5.0, 2018) hit 5.2 via ibt-18–16–1.sfi. Realtek RTL8761B (USB dongles) also jumped from 5.1 to 5.2 in some revisions. Older chips like Intel 8265 (4.2 to 5.0) stay below 5.2 due to hardware limits.
• Linux Status: Kernel 5.10+ and BlueZ 5.55+ (2020) support 5.2, with LE Audio maturing in 6.1+ and BlueZ 5.65+ (2022). Use bluetoothctl show to check your version — LE Audio needs LC3-compatible hardware and paired devices.

Bluetooth 5.3 (released in July 2021) brought enhancements like improved connection subrating, periodic advertising with responses (PAwR), and encryption key size control (here is a list of all changes). These are primarily software-driven enhancements to the Bluetooth Low Energy (LE) stack, building on 5.2’s foundation (e.g., LE Audio, Isochronous Channels). By 2025, Bluetooth 5.3 a mature standard, widely available in dongles and integrated modules. Some of the hardware can be updated with a firmware upgrade, so newer revisions of 5.2 host chipsets could support Bluetooth 5.3 (theoretically).

Bluetooth 5.3 refined 5.2 with Connection Subrating for power efficiency, Periodic Advertising with Responses (PAwR) for IoT scalability, and Encryption Key Size Control for security. These software-driven enhancements mean some 5.2 chipsets can upgrade to 5.3 with firmware, though it’s not universal.

• Hardware: Intel AX411 and AX211 launched with 5.3 (2022–2023, Wi-Fi 6E), not upgraded from 5.2. Older chips like AX200/AX201 (max 5.2) don’t reach 5.3 due to hardware ceilings. No widely documented 5.2-to-5.3 upgrades exist among common Linux-supported chipsets by 2025 — newer designs (e.g., Intel BE200) start at 5.3 or 5.4.
• Linux Status: Kernel 5.19+ and BlueZ 5.65+ (2022) enable 5.3. By 2025, it’s mature, powering dongles (e.g., Realtek RTL8761BW) and modules (e.g., MediaTek MT7922).

Bluetooth 5.4 was introduced in Feb/March 2023 and offers a few changes such as Periodic Advertising with Response: PAwR (bidirectional data exchange in a large one-to-many connectionless topology), Encrypted Advertising Data, LE GATT Security Levels Characteristic (better UX) and Advertising Coding Selection (tldr: better range).

Bluetooth 5.4 features are supported in the Linux kernel starting with version 6.3 (released April 2023), with further enhancements in 6.6 and 6.7. Users need BlueZ 5.70+ for full stack compatibility.

Bluetooth 5.4 targets IoT (the “Internet of Things”) with PAwR for large-scale networks, Encrypted Advertising Data, and LE GATT Security Levels. It’s the latest standard in 2025, found in cutting-edge hardware.

Bluetooth 6.0

Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) released Bluetooth Core Specification 6.0 in September 2024. Bluetooth 6.0 builds on previous versions with enhancements like Channel Sounding for precise location tracking, decision-based advertising filtering for better reliability, and improved audio latency through the Isochronous Adaptation Layer (ISOAL). These features aim to support advanced IoT and audio applications.

Research suggests Bluetooth is expanding beyond the very congested 2.4 GHz band: Bluetooth LE operation in additional unlicensed mid-band spectrums, including the 5 GHz and 6 GHz frequency bands are planned.

Will Bluetooth Stay on the 2.4 GHz Band?

Bluetooth has historically operated in the 2.4 GHz Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band, specifically from 2.402 to 2.480 GHz, using frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) to minimize interference (Wikipedia). This band, shared with Wi-Fi, baby monitors, and other devices, ensures global availability but faces congestion, especially in urban areas.

Research suggests Bluetooth is expanding beyond 2.4 GHz: a specification development project is underway to define Bluetooth LE operation in additional unlicensed mid-band spectrums, including the 5 GHz and 6 GHz frequency bands (Specifications in Development). This expansion aims to ensure performance enhancements like higher data throughput, lower latency, and greater positioning accuracy, paving the way for future innovations (read: Bluetooth Technology: Advancements in 2024 and Expected Trends in 2025).

The evidence leans toward Bluetooth expanding to 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands, not staying solely on 2.4 GHz, to improve performance and reduce interference, though 2.4 GHz will likely remain for backward compatibility: The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) has announced plans to develop a specification for Bluetooth Low Energy (LE) in the 5 GHz band, aiming for higher data rates and less congestion (see Bluetooth SIG Press Release). A CNET Article confirms this move. Semiconductor company Nordic Semiconductor is already preparing chips for this new band (read: Nordic Semiconductor Blog).

Tldr: get these devices for M.2, PCIe and USB dongles

M.2 NGFF

Intel AX210NGW (NGFF M2 2230 A/E key) with WiFi (6GHz, 5GHz and 2.4GHz) and Bluetooth 5.3

M.2 miniPCIe: Intel AX210NGW (NGFF M2 2230 A/E key) with WiFi (6GHz, 5GHz and 2.4GHz) and Bluetooth 5.3

The Intel AX210 chipset is supported on Linux since Kernel 5.10. If you are an Ubuntu user, that means you either can use it from Ubuntu 21.04. If you are experiencing issues, there is a longer thread on askubuntu that might help you. On older kernels, there are ways to make it run on 18.04 LTS with backport-iwlwifi-dkms.

Broadcom’s BCM4390, BCM676 and BCM47722 are interesting chipsets (low-power, highly integrated Wi-Fi 7 and Bluetooth 5.4 combo chip), but are as of November 2023 not available in any products yet.

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Desktop use (PCI Express)

For desktop use, get a PCIe to NGFF adapter and also get the Intel AX210. I can recommend this NGFF (M.2) to PCI-E 1X adapter.

For desktop use of WiFi 6E and BLuetooth: get a PCIe to NGFF adapter and also get the Intel AX210. I can recommend this NGFF (M.2) to PCI-E 1X adapter.

Bluetooth 5.0 USB dongles with Linux Kernel support

The StarTech USBA-BLUETOOTH-V5-C2 features the RTL8761B chipset, which is supported on Linux.

Getting USB dongles that work with Bluetooth higher than 5.0 is a hit-and-miss, and I have tested a variety of different devices from eBay and AliExpress. The only confirmed USB dongles that worked stable for me are these:

• Edimax BT-8500 (RTL8761B) is working since Kernel 5.8 with A2DP and HSP/HFP.
• StarTech USBA-BLUETOOTH-V5-C2 (RTL8761B) has the same chipset as the Edimax and is equally recommendable.
• Asus USB-BT500 (RTL8761BU) is reportedly working with Linux Kernel since 2.6. Other people have reported that minor tweaks to udev rules are everything needed to make them work.
• eppfun AK3040PLUS Qualcomm APTX- Adaptive USB Bluetooth 5.2 Audio Transmitter (audio only!) but seems to work with Linux.

List of supported Bluetooth 5+ chipsets for Linux

Bluetooth 5.0 and 5.1

• Realtek RTL8761B (0bda:8771 Realtek Semiconductor Corp) works since Linux Kernel 5.8. It can be mostly found in cheap adapters such as the Deal4GO RTL8761B USB Bluetooth Adapter (ca $6) and the SOOMFON Bluetooth 5.0 USB Dongle.
• Realtek RTL8761BU: Asus USB-BT500
• Realtek RTL8852BE has experimental support via HRex39 — you can find his code on GitHub.
• Cypress CYW43455 is the Wi-Fi/ Bluetooth chipset found in the Raspberry Pi 3+ and Raspberry Pi 4 Model B boards. This chipset supports Bluetooth 5.0, and is supported in the Linux kernel since 2019. You could hack together your Bluetooth 5 dongle with a Raspberry Pi Zero W, or get a Logitech Harmony Express (N-R0017) device, which has this chipset.

Bluetooth 5.2 and Bluetooth 5.3

Intel

Intel has some great M.2 NGFF cards, and provides drivers as part of the Linux kernels. Here is a list of Intel Wi-Fi 6 and Bluetooth 5 (5.3) and their Linux kernel support.

• Intel AX210 NGWG without vPro (do you really need vPro?), Bluetooth 5.2 Wireless Network Adapter Card Wi-Fi 6E). NGFF M2 2230. This is the currently suggested card to get.

CNVio and CNVio2

Be careful with other chipsets: some chipsets such as the 9560 have CNVio, and the AX201 has CNVio2. CNVio (or CNVi) means that MAC components, memory, processor and associated logic/firmware have been moved inside the CPU and chipset. Here is the problem: these chipsets would only work with Intel CPUs. The AX200 or AX210 can work with some CNVio laptops, but it depends on if the manufacturer included PCIe support as well in the slot. It is trial and error. You can read this thread with a list of supported notebooks which support regular upgrades, titled Upgrading laptops with CNVio v1 Wi-Fi adapters (e.g. Wireless-AC 9560) to Wi-Fi 6 (Intel AX200/210).

Though you can insert these CRF into a standard M.2 Key E socket, they are only compatible with a system designed for the CNVi. (Source: Intel)

These chipsets are CNVio or CNVio2 and will only work in some notebooks:

• Intel® Wi-Fi 6E AX411
• Intel® Wi-Fi 6E AX211
• Intel® Wi-Fi 6 AX203
• Intel® Wi-Fi 6 AX201
• Intel® Wi-Fi 6 AX101
• Intel® Wireless-AC 9560
• Intel® Wireless-AC 9462
• Intel® Wireless-AC 9461

Here is a comparison of the Intel AX411 vs. AX211 vs. AX210 Wi-Fi 6E — check the “Double connect feature”, which sadly is limited to CNVio2 at the moment. If you have a CNVio2 slot, get the AX411 Double Connect Wi-Fi 6E CNVio2 Tri Band 2.4, 5 & 6GHz DCT card. An AX410 (AX411 “double connect” without CNVio2) does not exist yet (source).

Intel Killer

Killer NIC was a dedicated gaming card from Killer Gaming. Intel acquired the company behind Killer gaming (Rivet Networks) in 2020 and is continuing the brand as Intel® Killer™ Products.

Killer 1650is is just a rebranded AX201, while 1650xw is a rebranded AX200. Same for 1675, AX210 vs. AX211. 1690 is i/s only: it’s AX411. While there are reported minor feature differences in the Killer AX1650, these seem to be only available in firmware? (needs confirmation! anyone has a clue about this?)

This can be confusing, so I suggest to stick with normal (not rebranded) cards for now.

Qualcomm

Qualcomm has different Bluetooth chipsets, but the most notable one is the recent Qualcomm FastConnect 6900 Wi-Fi 6, 6E, Bluetooth 5.3 (with up to 3.6 Gbps).

• There are reports about the Qualcomm Fast Connect 6900 (wcn6855 hw2.1) in a HP EliteBook 845 G9 and there are reported issues in a lore.kernel.org thread.

AMD

AMD and MediaTek co-developed the AMD RZ600 Series Wi-Fi 6E modules, which contain a dual chipset for WiFi 6E and Bluetooth (source). These chipsets are available in novel Ryzen-based PCs and notebooks (source) such as the Asus ROG Strix.

The chipset is also available in M.2 2230 and 1216 SKUs (source), but at the time of writing have not hit the market yet. You can find additional information in this document: MediaTek MT7922A12L Reference Design.

• AMD RZ616 Wi-Fi 6E module 160MHz, 2.4Gbps (M.2 2230 and 1216)
• AMD RZ608 Wi-Fi 6E module 80MHz, 1.2Gbps (M.2 2230)

Other chipsets

u-blox has their own chipset in development: u-blox M2-JODY-W3 card [m.2] (Wi-Fi 6 and Bluetooth 5.3). Supports Linux, info on cnx-software. Not available yet!

Buying guide 2025

The most FOSS and libre is ath9k Atheros AR9380 (for ca.$10, $25 on amazon), best Linux Wi‑Fi 6E BT5.2 is Intel AX210 (for ca.$9, $20 on amazon) and best for hackintosh is a Fenvi card with a Broadcom chipset: Fenvi T919 (for ca. $30, $45 on amazon). So far there are no kexts that will allow Intel WiFi 7 chips to work on hackintosh. For Linux and Windows Wi-Fi 7 and BT5.4 get the Intel Wi-Fi7 BE200 as a solid choice (for ca.$23, $40 on amazon).

Kindly let me know your experiences with Bluetooth dongles and chipsets on Linux! Here is a discussion on Reddit where I am keeping the status.

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