MILANI-BONHOEFFER COMPARATIVE REFLECTIVE ARTICLE

TEACHERS OF RESISTANCE: The Dissenting Leadership of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Don Lorenzo Milani

By Marco Tavanti, Elizabeth Wilp and Julie Tavanti

First published on April 9, 2024, this article commemorates the anniversary of April 9, 1945, when Dietrich Bonhoeffer, an anti-Nazi Lutheran pastor, and theologian, was hanged by the Nazi regime at Flossenburg concentration camp, just days before the camp’s liberation by American forces.

** Reflections inspired by the Centennial Celebrations of Don Milani (1923–2023).

Photo Credits: Cover of the book “Theologian of Resistance: The Life and Thought of Dietrich Bonhoeffer” by Christiane Tietz. Statue of German Protestant theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer at the west entrance to Westminster Abbey, London [Photo by CEphoto, Uwe Aranas CC BY-SA 3.0]; Cover of the book “Constitution and Resistance” (Costituzione e Resistenza) a photo exhibit on the Italian Constitution and the Partisan and other civil expressions of resistance to Nazis and Fascism during WWII in Italy (Reflection Panels on the road to Barbiana); A statue of Don Lorenzo Milani, founder of the School of Barbiana at Vasto, Italy by artist Vanni Macchiagodena [Photo by Chieti Today].

The Life and Leadership of Dietrich Bonhoeffer

“We are not to simply bandage the wounds of victims beneath the wheels of injustice, we are to drive a spoke into the wheel itself.” ― Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Dietrich Bonhoeffer, born on February 4, 1906, in Breslau, Germany, emerged as one of the most influential theologians and dissidents of the 20th century. His life and work stand as a testament to the power of conscience in the face of tyranny. Raised in an academically and culturally enriched environment, Bonhoeffer’s family background played a crucial role in shaping his intellectual and ethical outlook.

The Bonhoeffer family was distinguished and well-educated. His father, Karl Bonhoeffer, was a prominent psychiatrist and neurologist noted for his criticism of Sigmund Freud, while his mother, Paula, was the granddaughter of a renowned theologian. In 1933, when the government instigated a one-day boycott of Jewish-owned businesses, Bonhoeffer’s grandmother courageously broke through a cordon of SS officers to buy strawberries from a Jewish store. His mother’s refusal to send her small children to Germany’s public schools further highlighted the family’s dedication to their values and their resistance to conforming to unjust societal norms. This scholarly and morally driven environment fostered in Dietrich a deep sense of responsibility and a commitment to ethical principles from a young age.

Bonhoeffer’s theological journey began early, and he pursued his studies with exceptional vigor and brilliance. At the age of 21, he earned his doctorate in theology from the University of Berlin, where he studied under influential theologians like von Harnack, a proponent of the Social Gospel, a movement within Protestantism applying Christian ethics to social problems. Bonhoeffer’s early works already demonstrated his commitment to a theology that was not merely academic but profoundly practical and engaged with the real world, reflecting his dedication to addressing these pressing social issues.

The rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime presented Dietrich Bonhoeffer with a profound moral and theological crisis. By the end of 1930, a year before Bonhoeffer’s ordination, church seminaries were already noting that over half of their candidates were ardent followers of Hitler. Deeply troubled by the church’s acquiescence to Nazi ideology, which twisted Christian teachings to justify nationalism, racism, and the dehumanization of Jews and other minorities, Bonhoeffer became a vocal critic of both Hitler and the Nazis. He consistently emphasized the Christian duty to stand against injustice and oppression, championing the imperative to resist and confront evil in all its forms.

In 1933, the same year Hitler came to power, Bonhoeffer delivered a radio address warning Germans against slipping into idolatrous hero worship of their Führer. “Every leader [Führer] will have to be aware of the limitations of his authority. If he allows himself to be seduced by the people he leads into wanting to represent their idol, the leader becomes the seducer [Verführer].” Although the broadcast was cut off mid-sentence, it marked the beginning of Bonhoeffer’s active resistance. His dissent was not only verbal but also practical. He helped to establish the Confessing Church, a movement that opposed the Nazification of German Protestant churches. The Confessing Church upheld the primacy of God’s law over the state’s dictates, a stance that would eventually lead to severe reprisals from the Gestapo.

Bonhoeffer’s commitment to living out his theological beliefs led him to the underground Finkenwalde seminary, where he nurtured a community of future church leaders in a semi-monastic setting. Here, Bonhoeffer’s teaching focused on the cost of discipleship and the essence of Christian community, ideas that he later encapsulated in his seminal works The Cost of Discipleship (1937) and Life Together (1938). These books, grounded in his experiences at Finkenwalde, emphasized the need for personal sacrifice and communal living in the pursuit of true Christian discipleship.

Despite the increasing danger, Bonhoeffer continued his resistance activities. He became involved in the Abwehr, the German military intelligence organization, which was a hub for anti-Hitler conspirators. Using his position, he facilitated the escape of Jews to Switzerland and gathered intelligence on the Nazi regime. His involvement in the failed plot to assassinate Hitler in 1944 eventually led to his arrest and imprisonment.

Even in prison, Bonhoeffer’s leadership of conscience did not waver. His writings from this period, compiled in Letters and Papers from Prison (1951), reflect deep theological and ethical considerations, advocating for unwavering moral integrity and the need for action against evil. These works have since inspired countless individuals to consider the demands of faith and conscience in the face of injustice.

Dietrich Bonhoeffer was executed on April 9, 1945, at the Flossenbürg concentration camp, just weeks before the end of World War II. His brother Klaus Bonhoeffer was also executed for resistance activities, as were his brothers-in-law Hans von Dohnanyi and Rüdiger Schleicher (US Holocaust Museum). His legacy as a teacher of conscience and a model of dissenting leadership endures, reminding us of the profound impact that one individual’s commitment to ethical principles and courageous action can have in challenging times.

The Theology and Education of Conscience of Bonhoeffer and Don Milani

“The ultimate test of a moral society is the kind of world that it leaves to its children.” ― Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Though separated by time and geography, Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Don Lorenzo Milani shared a profound commitment to theology and the education of conscience. Their approaches to faith and education were deeply intertwined, advocating for an active and engaged form of Christianity that resisted the injustices of their respective eras. Through their alternative schools in Germany and Italy, they sought to instill a sense of moral responsibility and resistance in their students, standing in stark contrast to the prevailing attitudes of their churches and societies, which largely supported Nazism and Fascism.

Theology and Practical Faith

Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s theology, centered on discipleship and the cost of following Christ, emphasized that true faith required concrete action and a willingness to suffer for righteousness. This conviction is evident in his writings, where he argues that grace is not cheap but demands a life committed to ethical living, social justice, and even the ultimate sacrifice of giving one’s life for others. His practical faith led him to oppose the Nazi regime and actively participate in the resistance, reflecting his belief that Christianity must confront and resist evil.

The ideological and theological extremism of the German Christians provoked a backlash among more moderate Protestants, leading to the formation of the Confessing Church in May 1934. Although the Confessing Church took a clear stand against the German Christians, most of its leaders avoided political criticism of the Nazi regime. They remained silent about the persecution of German Jews. In his April 1933 essay, “The Church and the Jewish Question,” Bonhoeffer addressed the challenges facing his church under Nazism, arguing that National Socialism was an illegitimate form of government that had to be opposed on Christian grounds. He outlined three stages of this opposition: questioning state injustice, helping all victims of injustice regardless of their faith, and ultimately “putting a spoke in the wheel” to halt the machinery of injustice. This essay underscored Bonhoeffer’s belief that the church must actively resist evil and support the oppressed, highlighting the practical implications of his theology.

Bonhoeffer’s engagement in active resistance to the Nazi regime was driven by his deep Christian faith, his ethical convictions, his opposition to anti-Semitism, his commitment to the independence and integrity of the church, and his courage. He saw it as his moral duty to stand against the atrocities and injustices perpetrated by the Nazis, even at the cost of his own life.

Similarly, Don Milani’s theology was deeply rooted in social justice and the dignity of the individual. Don Milani believed the church’s mission was to stand with the oppressed and marginalized. His works, particularly “Letter to the Military Chaplains” (Lettera ai Cappellani Militari, 1965), “Letter to the Judges” (Lettera ai Giudici, 1965), and “Letter to a Teacher” (Lettera a una Professoressa, 1967), written with his students, criticize the national cultural assumptions legitimizing and expecting “blind obedience” and the Italian education system for perpetuating social exclusions and inequalities.

Don Milani’s practical faith was evident in his dedication to educating the poor and marginalized, which started first in the alternative school in the town of Calenzano and developed further in the Barbiana school. His methods fostered a sense of agency and critical consciousness among his students. Don Milani’s designation as “an obedient rebel” captures the essence of his dual commitment to both the Church and radical reform. He embodied a fidelity to Catholic doctrine while simultaneously challenging and seeking to transform the societal and institutional injustices he saw around him. This blend of obedience and rebellion made him a unique and influential figure in religion and education.

Both Bonhoeffer and Don Milani used their theological convictions as a basis for practical action against injustice. Bonhoeffer’s resistance to the Nazi regime was a direct manifestation of his belief that Christianity demands active opposition to evil. Similarly, Don Milani’s educational reforms were driven by his commitment to social justice and the empowerment of the marginalized. Their lives and works exemplify how deeply held faith can inspire transformative actions in the face of systemic oppression.

Education of Conscience and Resistance

“I had to teach my pupils well how a citizen reacts to injustice. How he has freedom of speech and of the press. How a Christian reacts also to the priest and even the bishop who errs. How each one has to feel responsible for everyone else.” — Don Lorenzo Milani

Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Don Lorenzo Milani established alternative schools that served as incubators for conscience and resistance, challenging the oppressive structures of their respective societies.

Bonhoeffer’s underground seminary at Finkenwalde in Germany was a radical departure from the compliant mainstream churches of the time. At Finkenwalde, Bonhoeffer taught his students to live in a semi-monastic community, emphasizing the importance of communal living, daily worship, and scripture study. This environment fostered a strong sense of community and ethical responsibility, preparing future church leaders to resist the Nazi ideology that had permeated much of the German church.

In post-WWII Italy, Don Milani established schools first at San Donato church in Calenzano and later in the remote village of Barbiana that were similarly radical, focusing on empowering the poor through education. Don Milani’s schools were characterized by their inclusivity and emphasis on the primacy of conscience, critical thinking, literacy, and social justice. He believed that education should be a tool for liberation and empowerment, enabling students to challenge the societal structures that oppressed them and contribute to the betterment of society. This was in direct contrast to the traditional Italian education system, which often reinforced social hierarchies and systematically excluded students from marginalized and poor backgrounds.

Both Bonhoeffer and Don Milani used education to cultivate conscience and resistance. At Finkenwalde, Bonhoeffer created a community where future church leaders could develop the moral fortitude to stand up against Nazi tyranny. Similarly, Don Milani’s schools in Italy empowered marginalized youth to question and resist the oppressive social structures around them. Their educational practices provided knowledge and instilled a profound sense of ethical responsibility and social justice in their students, equipping them to become agents of change in their respective contexts. Their educational endeavors highlight the transformative power of education rooted in ethical and moral convictions, serving as powerful examples of how education can be a force for resistance and social justice. Their legacy underscores the critical role of education in developing a conscience attuned to justice and the courage to act against oppression.

Common Characteristics and Contrasts with the Status Quo

If we compare Bonhoeffer with Don Milani we observe some clear common characteristics in their theology and education of conscience:

1. Commitment to Social Justice: Both saw their faith as a call to stand with the marginalized and oppressed. Their educational efforts were aimed at empowering those excluded by the dominant systems of their time.
2. Resistance to Totalitarian Ideologies: Bonhoeffer and Don Milani both resisted the prevailing ideologies of their countries — Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy. They viewed these ideologies as antithetical to Christian values and sought to counteract them through education and action.
3. Community and Discipleship: They emphasized the importance of community in living out their faith. Bonhoeffer’s seminary and Don Milani’s schools were designed to foster communal responsibility and mutual support.
4. Critique of the Church: Both were critical of their respective churches for their complicity with oppressive regimes. Bonhoeffer criticized the German church for its support of Nazism, while Don Milani condemned the Italian church for its support of Fascist ideologies and its neglect of the poor.

In contrast to the prevailing attitudes of their churches and societies, which largely supported the nationalistic and oppressive regimes of their time, Bonhoeffer and Don Milani’s approaches were revolutionary. Their insistence on a faith that demanded social action and their dedication to educating for resistance set them apart as leaders of conscience. Their legacies continue to inspire those who seek to live out their faith in opposition to injustice, demonstrating the enduring power of theology and education of conscience.

Lessons in Resistance to Today’s Christian Nationalism

“Silence in the face of evil is itself evil: God will not hold us guiltless. Not to speak is to speak. Not to act is to act.” ― Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Don Lorenzo Milani offer profound lessons for resisting the rising tide of Christian nationalism gaining traction in the USA and Europe. Their lives and works are powerful reminders of the importance of a faith that prioritizes social justice, moral integrity, and resistance to oppressive ideologies.

Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s Lessons in Resistance

“I have had time to think and to pray about my situation, and that of my nation, and to have God’s will for me clarified. I have come to the conclusion I have made a mistake in coming to America. I shall have no right to participate in the reconstruction of the Christian life in Germany after the war if I did not share in the trials of this time with my people. Christians in Germany face the terrible alternative of willing the defeat of their nation in order that civilization may survive, or willing the victory of their nation and thereby destroying civilization. I know which of these alternatives I must choose. But I cannot make that choice in security.” — Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Despite the increasing dangers, Bonhoeffer’s decision to return to Germany from New York in 1939 was a testament to his deep commitment to his homeland and his belief that he could not abandon his fellow Germans in their time of need. While in New York, he was not impressed by the churches’ complacency and failure to confront social injustices. He realized that his place was in Germany, where he could make a meaningful stand against the Nazi regime. He even declined an invitation to study nonviolent resistance with Mahatma Gandhi in India, feeling compelled to address the immediate crisis in Germany. Bonhoeffer’s return to Germany and his subsequent involvement in the resistance movement highlight several key lessons for today:

1. Moral Courage: Bonhoeffer demonstrated that true Christian faith requires the courage to stand up against injustice, even at great personal risk. His willingness to speak out and act against the Nazi regime, despite the dangers, underscores the importance of moral integrity in the face of evil.
2. Active Resistance: Bonhoeffer’s involvement in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler, though controversial, underscores his belief that faith must be active and confrontational. He argued that praying and hoping for change was not enough; Christians must take concrete actions to oppose injustice.
3. Community and Solidarity: Through his work at Finkenwalde and his writings, Bonhoeffer emphasized the importance of community and solidarity. He believed the church should be where individuals are supported and empowered to live out their faith in resistance to oppressive regimes.

Don Lorenzo Milani’s Lessons in Resistance

“The biggest sin of my life on April 18th. We lost on that day that we won; we have lost all the poor.” […] “Let’s hope this never happens again.” […] “I have to be on the other side.” — Don Milani, quoted by his friend Fr. Turoldo (1978)

Don Milani’s work in Italy offers parallel lessons in education and social justice and his ‘socio-political’ position for what later became known as an ‘option for the poor.’ Don Milani’s schools in Calenzano and Barbiana were radical departures from the traditional education system and the fascist mentality that remained in post-WWII Italy. His school methods were designed to empower the poor and marginalized and to exemplify how to dismantle the threat of fascist ideologies in politics and education.

1. Education as Liberation: Don Milani believed that education should be a tool for liberation, enabling individuals to challenge and change unjust social structures. His emphasis on critical thinking and social responsibility in his teaching is a powerful counter to any form of nationalism that seeks to exclude or oppress.
2. Inclusivity and Social Justice: Don Milani’s commitment to inclusivity and social justice contrasts sharply with the exclusionary tendencies of contemporary Christian nationalism. His work reminds us that Christian education must be inclusive and oriented toward the common good.
3. Critique of the Church: Like Bonhoeffer, Don Milani was critical of his church’s complicity with oppressive regimes. His outspoken criticism of the Italian church’s support for Fascism and neglect of the poor reminds us of the need for ongoing reform within religious institutions.

Dangers of Contemporary Christian Nationalism

“The great masquerade of evil has upset all ethical concepts. Duty seems capable of providing the safe guide to escape from the confusion caused by the quantity of possible decisions. […] The Germans made an error of judgment towards the world: they had not taken into account the possibility that an evil use would be made of their willingness to subjugate and personally involve themselves in their task.” — Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Reproduced in a Panel of the Sentiero della Resistance (Path of Resistance), on the road to Barbiana

Today’s Christian nationalism in the USA and parts of Europe bears disturbing resemblances to the national churches that supported Nazism and Fascism. This movement often embraces right-wing nationalistic agendas, including anti-immigration, anti-social responsibility, and anti-environmental policies. These tendencies pose several dangers:

1. Exclusion and Division: Christian nationalism often promotes exclusionary and divisive policies that marginalize immigrants, minorities, and other vulnerable groups. This goes against the inclusive and compassionate teachings of Christ.
2. Moral Compromise: Just as the German and Italian churches compromised their moral integrity by aligning with oppressive regimes, today’s Christian nationalists risk compromising the ethical foundations of their faith by supporting policies that are unjust and discriminatory.
3. Neglect of Social and Environmental Responsibilities: Christian nationalism tends to reject social and environmental responsibilities, promoting a narrow and self-serving interpretation of faith. This neglects the broader Christian mandate to care for the least among us and responsibly steward God’s creation. From Bonhoeffer and Don Milani’s perspectives, they ultimately compromise their Christian moral responsibility to leave a better world for the new generations.

The lives and teachings of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Don Lorenzo Milani offer a powerful counter-narrative to the rise of Christian nationalism. Their commitment to moral courage, active resistance, inclusivity, and social justice provides a blueprint for contemporary Christians seeking to live out their faith in opposition to exclusionary and oppressive ideologies. In a time when Christian nationalism threatens to distort the true message of Christianity, Bonhoeffer and Don Milani remind us of the enduring power of a faith that stands for justice, compassion, and the common good.

Suggested Citation: Tavanti, Marco, Elizabeth Wilp, and Julie Tavanti. “Teachers of Resistance: The Dissenting Leadership of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Don Lorenzo Milani.” Medium (EduVators). April 9, 2024. https://medium.com/p/35853ea4c986

‌Explore More: International Bonhoeffer Society https://bonhoeffersociety.org/; Bonhoeffer: Pastor, Martyr, Prophet, Spy (Book by Eric Mextaxas, 2011) https://ericmetaxas.com/books/bonhoeffer-pastor-martyr-prophet-spy/ ; Bonhoeffer, Pastor, Spy, Assassin (Movie by Angel Studios, 2024) https://www.angel.com/movies/bonhoeffer ; Christians Against Christian Nationalism https://www.christiansagainstchristiannationalism.org/

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About the Authors: Marco Tavanti is an Italian-born American professor who deeply appreciates Don Lorenzo Milani’s teaching methods. He learned about these methods near the Barbiana school early in his career. Marco’s work brings these impactful ideas into today’s teaching practices worldwide. Elizabeth Wilp is a researcher contributing to inclusive education, especially in curricula and classrooms with students from different cultures and backgrounds. Her research and experience provide important insights into how schools can be more effective and welcoming for all students. Julie Tavanti is a Chinese-born American student passionate about developing new ways to teach students who learn differently and helping more women get into STEM fields. Her unique background and dedication to diverse education shape her views and efforts.